WORKS  BY 

L.  A.  WATERBURY 

PUBLISHED    BY 

JOHN  WILEY  &  SONS 


Laboratory  Manual 

For  the  Use  of  Students  in 
Testing  Materials  of  Construc- 
tion. 12mo,  ix  +  270  pages,  68 
figures.  Cloth,  $1.50  net. 

Cement  Laboratory  Manual 

A  Manual  of  Instructions  for 
the  Use  of  Students  in  Cement 
Laboratory  Practice.  12mo, 
vii  +  122  pages,  28  figures. 
Cloth,  $1.00. 

A     Vest-pocket     Handbook     of 
Mathematics  for  Engineers 

vi  +  91  pages,  61  figures.  Mo- 
rocco, $1.00  net. 

Enlarged  Edition  with  Tables 
vi  +  193  pages,  61  figures.     Mo- 
rocco, $1.50  net. 


LABORATORY  MANUAL 

FOR  THE  USE  OF  STUDENTS  IN 

TESTING    MATERIALS    OF 
CONSTRUCTION 


BY 

L.    A.    WATERBURY,    C.E. 

PROFESSOR  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERING,   UNIVERSITY   OF  ARIZONA.      MEMBER  OP  THE 

AMERICAN  SOCIETY   FOR   TESTING   MATERIALS.      ASSOCIATE   MEMBER   OF 

THE  AMERICAN  SOCIETY  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERS 


FIRST   EDITION 

FIRST    THOUSAND 


NEW  YORK 

JOHN    WILEY   &    SONS 

LONDON:   CHAPMAN   &  HALL,    LIMITED 

1912 


COPYRIGHT,  1912 

BY 

L.   A.   WATERBURY 


Stanbope  ipm» 

F.   H.  GILS  ON    COMPANY 
BOSTON,     U.S. A 


PREFACE. 


IN  1908  the  writer  published  a  manual  for  the  use 
of  students  in  cement  laboratory  practice.  The 
present  volume  contains  nearly  all  of  the  matter 
included  in  the  former  work,  in  addition  to  which 
there  are  problems  in  the  testing  of  other  materials 
used  in  engineering  construction,  including  tests  of 
concrete,  stone,  brick,  asphalt,  sand  and  gravel, 
wood,  iron,  and  steel.  This  volume  is  particularly 
intended  for  the  use  of  those  schools  which  include 
in  one  course  all  of  the  work  in  testing  materials 
which  is  required  of  their  students.  However,  a 
sufficient  number  of  problems  are  outlined  to  permit 
the  manual  to  be  used  in  those  schools  in  which  the 
work  is  subdivided  into  two  courses.  If  the  entire 
field  is  covered  by  one  course,  it  is  probable  that  a 
considerable  number  of  the  problems  will  have  to 
be  omitted. 

The  Cement  Laboratory  Manual  was  prepared 
for  the  use  of  students  taking  the  course  in  cement 
laboratory  practice  in  the  University  of  Illinois, 
and  for  the  use  of  others  requiring  such  a  manual. 
Instructions  for  the  problems  originally  used  in  the 
course  mentioned  were  devised  by  Ira  O.  Baker, 
Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  University  of 

242296 


IV  PREFACE 

Illinois,  under  whose  direction  the  author  had 
charge  of  the  cement  laboratory  at  that  institution 
for  three  years.  The  Cement  Laboratory  Manual 
was  prepared  by  revising  and  extending  the  in- 
structions previously  in  use. 

For  suggestions  and  assistance  in  the  preparation 
of  the  Cement  Laboratory  Manual,  the  writer  is 
very  much  indebted  to  Professor  Ira  O.  Baker. 

L.  A.  W. 

July,  1911. 


TABLE    OF   CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I.  —  GENERAL  INSTRUCTIONS. 
ARTICLE  I.  —  LABORATORY  WORK. 

Methods i 

Care  of  Small  Apparatus 2 

Use  of  Testing  Machines 3 

Assignment  of  Equipment 5 

Assignment  of  Materials 7 

Waste  Materials 7 

Assignment  of  Problems 8 

Marking  Test  Specimens 9 

ARTICLE  2  —  PREPARATION  OF  REPORTS 9 

CHAPTER  II.  —  DESCRIPTION  OF  APPARATUS. 

Cement  Sampler 12 

Sieves 12 

Apparatus  for  Determining  Weight  of  Cement .  .  13 

Sand-glass 14 

Trowels 14 

Balances  and  Scales 14 

Displacement  Flasks 18 

Measuring  Glasses 18 

Vicat  Apparatus 19 

Gillmore's  Needles 20 

Molds 21 

Molding  Machines 23 

Boiler  for  Accelerated  Tests 25 

v 


vi  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  II.  —  Continued. 

Moist  Closet 26 

Storage  Tank 26 

Cement  Testing  Machines 27 

Hydraulic  Testing  Machines 32 

Vertical  Screw  Testing  Machines 33 

Transverse  Testing  Machines 36 

Torsion  Testing  Machines 37 

Impact  Testing  Machines 38 

Cold  Bend  Testing  Machines 42 

Abrasion  Cylinders 42 

Micrometers 46 

Laying-off  and  Per  Cent  Gauge 46 

Extensometers  and  Deformeters 47 

Deflection  Instruments 54 

Multiplying  Dividers 54 

CHAPTER  III.  —  TESTS  OF  CEMENT. 

Problem  Ai.  Determination  of  Fineness  of 

Cement 55 

Problem  A2.     Weight  of  Cement 57 

Problem  A3.     Specific  Gravity  of  Cement 58 

Problem  A4.  Plasticity  of  Cement  —  Boulogne 

Method 62 

Problem  A$.  Plasticity  of  Cement  —  with  Vicat 

Apparatus 64 

Problem  A6.  Soundness  of  Cement  —  Gold  Pat 

Test. 67 

Problem  Ay.  Soundness  of  Cement  —  Acceler- 
ated Test 69 

Problem  A8.     Time  of  Setting  of  Cement 71 

Problem  Ag.  Tensile  Strength  of  Neat  Cement 

—  Variation  with  Age 74 

Problem  Aio.  Tensile  Strength  of  i  :  3  Mortar 

—  Variation  with  Age 77 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS  Vll 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  III.  —  Continued. 

Problem  An.     Variation  in  Tensile  Strength  of 

Neat  Cement  with  Amount  of  Water 78 

Problem  A 12..     Tensile  Strength  of  i  :  3  Mortar 

-  Effect  of  Different  Methods  of  Molding. ...       81 
Problem  A 13.     Comparison  of  Different  Methods 

of  Hand  Molding 83 

Problem  Ai4.     Compressive  Strength  of  Cement 
and  Cement  Mortar 85 


CHAPTER  IV.  —  TESTS  OF  CONCRETE. 

Problem  Bi.  Preparations  of  Specimens 87 

Problem  B 2.  Compression  Test  of  Concrete 91 

Problem  63.  Shearing  Test  of  Concrete 93 

Problem  64.  Test  of  Bond  of  Steel  Embedded  in 

Concrete 97 

Problem  65.  Modulus  of  Elasticity  of  Concrete  101 
Problem  B6.  Cross  Breaking  Test  of  Concrete 

Beams 103 

Problem  67.  Deformation  of  Concrete  Beams. .  105 

Problem  B8.  Test  of  Concrete  Columns. .  108 


Problem  Ci. 
Steel  

Tensile  Test  of  Wrought  Iron  and 

no 

Problem  C2. 
Steel 

Modulus  of  Elasticity  of  Iron  and 

112 

Problem  C3. 
Problem  C4. 
Problem  €5. 
Problem  C6. 
Problem  C?. 

Shearing  Test  of  Steel  
Cold  Bend  Test  of  Iron  and  Steel. 
Torsion  Test  of  Steel  
Transverse  Test  of  Cast  Iron  
Impact  Test  of  Iron  or  Steel  .  . 

114 
116 
117 
119 

121 

viii  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  VI.  —  TEST  OF  WOOD. 

Problem  Di.     Tensile  Test  of  Wood 124 

Problem  D2.     Longitudinal  Shear  of  Wood 126 

Problem  03.     Crushing  Strength  of  Wood 129 

Problem  04.     Flexural  Test  of  Wood 131 

Problem  D5.     Impact  Test  of  Wood 134 

CHAPTER  VII.  —  TESTS  or  BRICK. 

Problem  Ei.     Transverse  Test  of  Brick 135 

Problem  E2.     Absorption  Test  of  Brick 137 

Problem  £3.     Compression  Test  of  Brick 139 

Problem  £4.     Freezing    and    Thawing    Test   of 

Brick 141 

Problem  £5.     Rattler  Test  of  Brick 143 

CHAPTER  VIII.  —  TESTS  OF  SAND,  GRAVEL  AND  STONE. 

Problem  Fi.     Crushing  Test  of  Stone 145 

Problem  F2.     Abrasion  Test  of  Stone 146 

Problem  F3.     Toughness  Test  of  Broken  Stone.  148 
Problem  F4.     Specific  Gravity  of  Sand,  Gravel 

and  Broken  Stone 149 

Problem  F5.     Percentage    of    Voids    in    Sand, 

Gravel  and  Broken  Stone 152 

Problem  F6.     Sieve  Analysis   of  Sand,   Gravel 

and  Broken  Stone 154 

Problem  Fy.     Proportions   for   Concrete   Aggre- 
gates   156 

CHAPTER  IX.  —  TESTS  OF  ASPHALT. 

Problem  Gi.     Purity  of  Asphalt 159 

Problem  G2.     Percentage  of  Bitumen  in  Paving 

Mixtures 161 

Problem  G3.     Penetration  Test  of  Asphalt 163 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS  ix 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  IX.  —  Continued. 

Problem  G/j..     Residual  Coke  in  Asphalt 165 

Problem  65.     Loss  on  Heating 167 

Problem  G6.     Ductility  of  Asphalt 169 

APPENDICES. 

I.  PROGRESS  REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  UNI- 
FORM TESTS  OF  CEMENT  OF  THE  AMERI- 
CAN SOCIETY  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERS 177 

II.  STANDARD  SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  CEMENT 
OF  THE  AMERICAN  SOCIETY  FOR  TESTING 
MATERIALS 195 

III.  METHOD  SUGGESTED  FOR  THE  ANALYSIS 

OF  LIMESTONES,  RAW  MIXTURES  AND 
PORTLAND  CEMENTS  BY  THE  COMMITTEE 
ON  UNIFORMITY  IN  TECHNICAL  ANALY- 
SIS OF  THE  NEW  YORK  SECTION  OF  THE 
SOCIETY  FOR  CHEMICAL  INDUSTRY 201 

IV.  MAJORITY  REPORT  OF  PROGRESS  REPORT 

OF  SPECIAL  COMMITTEE  ON  CONCRETE 
AND  REINFORCED  CONCRETE  OF  THE 
AMERICAN  SOCIETY  OF  CIVIL  ENGI- 
NEERS    207 

V.  STANDARD  SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  STRUCTUR- 
AL STEEL  FOR  BRIDGES  OF  THE  AMERI- 
CAN SOCIETY  FOR  TESTING  MATERIALS.  237 
VI.  STANDARD  SPECIFICATIONS  .FOR  STRUC- 
TURAL STEEL  FOR  BUILDINGS  OF  THE 
AMERICAN  SOCIETY  FOR  TESTING  MA- 
TERIALS    243 

VII.  STANDARD  SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  OPEN- 
HEARTH  BOILER  PLATE  AND  RIVET 
STEEL  OF  THE  AMERICAN  SOCIETY  FOR 

TESTING  MATERIALS 248 

VIII.   REQUIREMENTS  FOR  PAVING  BRICK 254 


MATERIALS    TESTING 
MANUAL. 


CHAPTER   I. 

GENERAL  INSTRUCTIONS. 
ART.  i.    LABORATORY  WORK. 

i.  Methods.  There  are  two  classes  into  which 
methods  of  testing  may  be  divided,  viz. ,  direct  and 
indirect  methods.  The  first  class  includes  all  of 
those  tests  in  which  the  character  of  the  property 
under  consideration  is  directly  determined,  either 
in  the  material  or  in  a  sample  of  it.  The  second 
class  includes  all  of  those  methods  by  which  the 
quality  of  the  material  is  inferred  from  the  results 
of  tests  upon  related  properties.  For  instance,  it 
might  be  possible  to  determine  the  strength  of  a 
given  material  by  breaking  a  sample,  measuring  the 
amount  of  the  load  used,  or  if  it  were  known  from 
the  results  of  previous  tests,  or  experience,  that  the 
specific  gravity  for  satisfactory  specimens  had 
always  been  within  certain  limits,  and  that  for 
unsatisfactory  specimens  the  specific  gravity  had 
always  been  outside  of  those  limits,  then  it  might 
be  possible  to  infer  the  quality  of  the  material  on 
hand  by  a  determination  of  the  specific  gravity. 


7.  MATERIALS   TESTING  MANUAL 

In  many  instances  in  which  the  quality  of  a  mate- 
rial is  inferred  from  the  results  of  indirect  tests,  it 
requires  but  a  slight  variation  in  the  results  of  the 
tests  to  reverse  the  indication  as  to  the  quality  of 
the  material.  Since  variations  in  the  manner  of 
conducting  a  test  may  cause  a  variation  in  the 
results,  it  is  apparent  that  for  certain  kinds  of 
tests  all  observers  should  follow  uniform  methods. 
Furthermore,  there  are  cases  in  which  variations 
in  the  method  of  preparing  specimens,  or  in  the 
method  of  treating  a  material,  may  cause  consider- 
able variation  in  the  results  of  direct  tests.  For 
these  reasons  various  organizations  have  attempted 
to  standardize  the  methods  of  testing  to  be  used  for 
materials  of  construction.  The  American  Society 
for  Testing  Materials  has  for  its  object  this  pur- 
pose, and  its  work  in  this  direction  is  to  be  com- 
mended. The  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers 
and  other  organizations  have  also  done  a  great  deal 
of  good  work  along  the  same  line. 

2.  The  student  should  make  use  of  the  standard 
methods  of  testing  in  order  that  he  may  gain  a 
knowledge  of  those  methods,  that  his  results  may 
be  compared  with  the  results  obtained  by  other 
experimenters,  and  that  his  results  may  be  of  the 
greatest  possible  practical  use  in  his  own   engi- 
neering practice. 

3.  Care  of  Small  Apparatus.    Small  pieces  of 
apparatus  which  are  kept  in  lockers  should  be 
cleaned  and  returned  to  their  places  as  soon  as 


GENERAL  INSTRUCTIONS  3 

possible  after  using.  Use  care  in  handling  glass- 
ware. To  remove  cement  which  has  set  upon 
glassware  vinegar  or  muriatic  acid  can  be  used. 
However,  if  glassware  is  thoroughly  cleaned  with 
water  before  the  cement  hardens,  there  will  be  no 
necessity  for  the  use  of  acid. 

4.  Use    of    Testing    Machines.    No    machine 
should   be   started   without   the   approval  of  the 
instructor.     Before  starting  a  machine  all  tools, 
small  pieces  of  apparatus,  and  other  loose  articles 
should  be  removed  from  the  vicinity ,  or  be  so  placed 
that  they  will  not  fall  into  the  gears.     Also,  see 
that  the  machine  is  out  of  gear,  with  the  driving 
belt  running  on  loose  pulleys. 

5.  In  starting  the  electric  motor,  if  such  is  used, 
allow  the   lever  of   the   starting   compensator  to 
remain  with  the  indicator  at  "  Starting  "  until  the 
motor  has  attained  full  speed,  after  which  the  lever 
should  be  shifted  so  that  indicator  points  to  "  Run- 
ning."     Some    small    motors    are    used    without 
starting  compensators,  in  which  case  the  full  current 
is  at  once  turned  on  by  throwing  the  switch.     If  a 
motor  of  this  kind  is  required  to  start  with  some 
belting  and  shafting  connected,  the  strain  in  start- 
ing can  be  reduced  by  taking  hold  of  the  belt  and 
giving  it  a  start  before  throwing  the  switch.    Be- 
fore stopping  the  motor  see  that  all  machines  which 
are  driven  by  it  are  out  of  gear. 

6.  In  preparing  to  use  a  large  testing  machine 
attach  the  necessary  grips  or  the  compression  heads 


4  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

which  are  required  for  the  test  to  be  made.  Next 
see  that  the  scale  beam  will  balance  for  a  zero  load. 
If  it  does  not  balance  shift  the  counterpoise  as 
may  be  required.  Then  place  the  specimen  in 
position  in  the  machine,  advance  the  poise  on  the 
scale  beam  far  enough  to  cause  the  beam  to  drop, 
and  move  the  lever  to  place  the  machine  in  gear. 
As  soon  as  the  scale  beam  rises,  begin  to  move  the 
poise  forward,  keeping  the  beam  balanced  until 
failure  of  the  specimen  occurs.  Be  careful  not  to 
move  the  poise  beyond  the  point  at  which  the 
failure  occurs  before  taking  the  reading.  As  soon 
as  the  failure  occurs,  throw  the  machine  out  of  gear 
and  then  record  the  reading  of  the  load. 

7.  In  using  a  testing  machine  the  proper  speed 
to  use  will  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  test. 
For  compression  tests  of  short  specimens  the  slow- 
est speed  will  usually  be  required.    For  ordinary  ten- 
sile tests  the  next  speed  faster  than  the  slowest  will 
probably  be  satisfactory.     The  fastest  speed  should 
be  used  only  for  shifting  the  position  of  the  mov- 
able head  to  facilitate  placing  or  removing  speci- 
mens. 

8.  In  making  tensile  tests  the  specimen  is  held 
by  two  sets  of  grips,    one  set  being  attached  to 
the  fixed  head  and  one  set  to  the  movable  head  of 
the  machine.     If  the  thickness  or  diameter  of  the 
specimen  is  small  it  is  necessary  to  insert  a  filler 
plate  between  each  grip  and  the  machine  head. 
The  thickness  of  the  filler  plates  or  the  number 


GENERAL   INSTRUCTIONS 


used  should  be  sufficient  to  prevent  the  grips  from 
projecting  from  the  head.     In  Fig.   i  the  wrong 


Fig.  i.  —  Wrong  Way 


way  is  illustrated,  the  filler  plates  being  omitted, 
thus  allowing  the  grips  to  slide  down  so  far  that 
they  do  not  obtain  full  bearing  against  the  head. 
The  correct  method  is  shown  in  Fig.  2. 


Fig.  2.  —  Right  Way 

9.  Assignment  of  Equipment.  For  cement  test- 
ing each  student  will  be  assigned  a  trowel,  a  pan, 
a  beaker,  and  a  graduated  cylinder.  He  will 
also  be  assigned  a  locker  in  which  to  keep  his 


6  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

equipment.  The  number  of  the  locker  will  be  the 
same  as  the  reference  number  of  the  student,  by 
which  assignments  will  be  made.  Other  small 
pieces  of  apparatus  which  will  be  required  will  be 
kept  in  lockers  provided  for  that  purpose.  The 
keys  for  these  lockers  will  be  kept  in  a  key  case,  and 
can  be  obtained  from  the  instructor.  When  a  key 
is  taken  from  its  hook  in  the  case,  a  receipt  card  is 
to  be  filled  out  by  the  student  and  placed  upon  the 
hook.  Upon  the  card  should  be  placed  the  date, 
the  number  of  the  key  or  locker,  and  the  name  of 
the  person  taking  the  key.  This  card  is  not  to  be 
removed  when  the  key  is  returned,  but  it  is  to  remain 
on  the  hook  as  a  record.  After  returning  the 
equipment  to  the  locker,  the  key  is  to  be  deposited 
in  the  key  case.  In  the  event  that  any  of  the 
equipment  is  damaged,  a  record  of  the  damage  is 
to  be  made  on  a  red  tag,  which  is  to  be  deposited 
with  the  key.  Upon  such  red  tags  record  the  date, 
the  article  damaged,  the  locker  in  which  the 
apparatus  belongs,  and  the  name  of  the  person 
responsible  for  the  damage.  If  apparatus  is  found 
to  be  damaged  when  a  locker  is  assigned,  the  facts 
should  be  immediately  reported  to  the  instructor  in 
charge. 

10.  Molds  for  making  briquettes,  sets  of  dies  for 
marking  specimens,  rammers,  oil  cans,  waste,  and 
other  equipment  and  supplies  of  this  character, 
will  be  kept  in  suitable  places  provided  for  them. 
Whenever  such  equipment  is  used,  it  should  be 


GENERAL  INSTRUCTIONS  7 

returned  to  its  proper  place  as  soon  as  possible,  in 
order  that  the  work  of  other  students  may  not  be 
unnecessarily  delayed. 

11.  Assignment   of   Materials.      Each   student 
will  be  assigned  the  materials  to  be  used  at  each 
laboratory    period.     The   assignments  of  cements 
will  be  made  from  two  particular  brands,  one  of 
which  will  be  a  Portland  cement,  and  the  other 
either  a  natural  or  a  pozzuolana  cement.     For  con- 
venience each  brand  of  cement  will  be  given  a 
number  by  which  it  will  be  designated  upon  the 
assignment  sheet,  but  in  reporting  the  results  of 
problems  the  name  as  well  as  the  number  of  the  cement 
should  be  reported  in  every  case.    The  assignment 
sheet  will  indicate  whether  one  or  both  of   the 
cements  are  to  be  used  at  one  laboratory  period. 
If  desirable  the  same  problem  may  be  assigned  for 
two  different  laboratory  periods,  only  one  cement 
being  used  at  each  period.     Different  kinds  of  sand 
will  also  be  designated  by  number.     Numbers  from 
i   to  49  inclusive  will   be  reserved   for   Portland 
cements,    numbers   from    50   to    79   inclusive   for 
natural  cements,  numbers  from  80  to  89  inclusive 
for  pozzuolana  cements,  and  numbers  from  90  to 
99  inclusive  for  different  kinds  of  sand. 

12.  Waste    Materials.    After  using  cement  do 
not  attempt  to  return  it  to  the  original  bins  or  cans, 
even  though  it  has  not  been  mixed,  but  place  it  in 
the  waste  can  provided  for  that  purpose.     If  the 
cement  is  allowed  to  be  returned  to  the  original 


8  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

supply,  mistakes  are  likely  to  occur,  and  the  various 
brands  will  soon  become  mixed.  Do  not  place  any 
unused  mortar  or  other  waste  materials  in  the  cans 
provided  for  unused  cement.-  Waste  boxes  will  be 
provided  in  which  unused  mortar,  broken  briquettes, 
and  other  wastes  which  are  not  liquid  can  be  de- 
posited. Very  wet  or  liquid  wastes  are  to  be  placed 
in  the  waste  jar  provided  for  them,  and  under  no 
conditions  are  wastes  or  water  containing  cement  to 
be  placed  in  the  sink. 

13.  Assignment  of  Problems.  In  order  that 
an  excessive  amount  of  equipment  may  not  be 
required,  the  problems  will  be  assigned  in  such  a 
manner  that  only  a  few  students  will  be  working  on 
each  problem  at  any  one  laboratory  period.  When 
more  than  one  problem  is  to  be  executed  at  one 
laboratory  period,  the  problems  will  be  given  on  the 
assignment  sheet  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
to  be  executed.  It  is  important  that  the  student 
shall  observe  the  order  in  which  the  problems  are  to 
be  done,  particularly  for  assignments  including  the 
determination  of  the  time  of  set,  in  which  case  the 
specimens  should  be  prepared  as  quickly  as  possi- 
ble at  the  beginning  of  the  period,  and  while  wait- 
ing for  the  setting  to  occur  another  problem  can  be 
executed.  The  letter  m  is  used  upon  the  assign- 
ment sheet  to  indicate  the  laboratory  periods  at 
which  specimens  are  to  be  made,  and  the  letter  t 
to  indicate  the  periods  at  which  specimens  are  to 
be  tested. 


GENERAL  INSTRUCTIONS  9 

14.  Marking  Test  Specimens.     In  some  of  the 
problems  instructions  are  given  for  marking  speci- 
mens which  are  to  be  tested  at  some  future  labora- 
tory period.    The  student  should  be  careful  to 
follow  these  instructions,  since  it  is  desirable  to 
have  all  the  members  of  the  class  use  a  uniform 
method,  in  order  that  the  attendant  who  cares  for 
the  specimens  may  know  where  they  belong. 

ART.  2.    PREPARATION  OF  REPORTS. 

15.  A  report  is  to  be  made  out  for  each  problem 
and  is  to  be  handed  in  within  three  days  after  the 
completion  of  the  problem  in  the  laboratory.     Each 
problem  is  to  be  reported  upon  a  separate  sheet, 
even    though    the    laboratory    work    for    several 
problems  may  be  executed  at  one  laboratory  period. 
It  is  also  desirable  to  have  the  report  for  each 
problem   occupy    but  one   page.      In   order   that 
reports  may  be  uniform,  it  is  essential  that  each 
student  shall  use  only  the  kind  of  paper  designated 
for  such  reports,  and  the  use  of  other  kinds  of  paper 
will  be  sufficient  cause  for  the  rejection  of  reports. 

1 6.  In  addition  to  the  reports  to  be  submitted 
for   the   separate   problems,   the   student  will   be 
required  to  submit  a  final  report  upon  each  of  the 
two   cements  used.     Each  of  these  final  reports 
shall  contain  a  summary  of  the  results  of  the  tests 
which  have  been  made  upon  the  brand  of  cement 
under  consideration,  and  in  conclusion  a  statement 
shall  be  made  concerning  the  character  of  the 


10  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

cement  as  indicated  by  the  results  of  the  various 
tests.  In  this  statement  name  the  kinds  of  work 
for  which  the  cement  would  be  satisfactory  and  the 
kinds  of  work  for  which  it  might  prove  unsatis- 
factory. Also  compare  the  results  with  the  speci- 
fications recommended  by  the  American  Society 
for  Testing  Materials,  which  are  given  in  Appen- 
dix II. 

17.  It  is  essential  that  both  the  reports  of  the 
problems  and  the  final  reports  shall  be  carefully 
prepared.  Forms  for  these  reports  are  not  given, 
for  the  reason  that  it  is  desired  that  students  shall 
take  the  initiative  and  that  they  shall  learn  to 
devise  reports.  For  much  of  the  school  work, 
forms  of  notes  are  furnished  which  show  the  exact 
way  in  which  to  record  the  various  data  and 
results  obtained.  Cement  laboratory  work  may  be 
different  from  the  other  work  which  the  student 
has  done,  and  many  of  the  engineering  problems  for 
which  he  will  have  occasion  to  devise  reports  will 
undoubtedly  be  different  from  any  of  his  previous 
work;  but,  if  he  will  study  the  methods  used  in  the 
arrangement  of  a  few  kinds  of  work,  he  should  be 
able  to  apply  those  methods  to  other  kinds  of 
work.  For  this  reason  the  student  is  asked  to 
study  carefully  the  arrangement  of  his  reports. 
In  devising  forms  for  reports,  the  following  things 
should  be  remembered:  A  report  should  be  terse, 
precise,  complete,  and  neat.  In  order  that  it  may 
be  neat,  it  must  be  not  only  well  arranged,  but  also 


GENERAL  INSTRUCTIONS  II 

legibly  written  or  lettered.  In  order  that  a  report 
may  be  complete  and  at  the  same  time  terse,  all  of 
the  necessary  facts  should  be  stated,  but  each  fact 
should  be  stated  as  briefly  as  may  be  without  de- 
tracting from  the  precision  of  the  statement.  It 
is  well  to  tabulate  all  data  and  all  results  which 
can  be  expressed  in  such  form.  Similar  kinds  of 
facts  should  be  collected  and  arranged  under  suit- 
able headings,  as  "  Object  of  Experiment,"  "  Appa- 
ratus," "  Method  of  Determination,"  "  Data  and 
Results,"  "  Conclusions,"  etc.  Such  headings 
should  be  given  sufficient  prominence  to  enable 
anyone  to  see  at  once  where  the  facts  for  which  he 
is  looking  may  be  found.  It  is  not  advisable  to 
use  symbols  in  headings  for  tabulated  data,  as  % 
for  per  cent.  Also  avoid  the  use  of  abbreviations 
in  the  title  and  other  headings  of  the  report. 


CHAPTER   II. 

DESCRIPTION   OF  APPARATUS. 

18.  In  order  that  the  student  may  better  under- 
stand the  problems  in  the  following  chapters,  some 
of  the  apparatus  commonly  found  in  testing  labor- 
atories will  be  briefly  described. 

19.  Cement    Sampler.     The    device    shown    in 
Fig.  3  is  used  for  obtaining  samples  for  inspection 
from  cement  packed  in  barrels. 


Fig.  4.  —  Single  Sieve 


Fig-  3-  —  Cement  Sampler 


Fig.  5.  —  Nest  of  Sieves  with 
Cover  and  Pan 


20.   Sieves.     Coarse  sieves  are  used  for  screening 
cement  to  remove  lumps,  and  fine  sieves  are  used 

12 


DESCRIPTION   OF  APPARATUS  13 

for  determining  the  fineness  of  cement.  Both 
classes  of  sieves  are  designated  by  number,  the 
number  of  meshes  per  lineal  inch  being  the  same 
as  the  number  of  the  sieve.  The  styles  of  sieves 
ordinarily  used  in  cement  laboratories  are  shown 
in  Figs.  4  and  5.  Fig.  4  illustrates  a  single  sieve, 
and  Fig.  5  a  nest  of  sieves  arranged  to  fit  together, 
with  a  cover  on  the  top  sieve  and  a  pan  attached 
to  the  lower  sieve. 

21.  Apparatus     for     Determining     Weight     of 
Cement.    For    the    purpose    of    determining    the 


Fig.  6.  —  Apparatus  for  Determining  Weight  of  Cement 

weight  of  cement  per  cubic  foot  or  per  bushel,  the 
measuring  box  used  must  be  so  arranged  that  the 


MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 


amount  of  compacting  which  the  cement  receives 
in  entering  the  box  shall  be  the  same  for  the  differ- 
ent samples  tested,  since  the  weight  varies  consider- 
ably with  the  degree  of  compactness.  The  device 
shown  in  Fig.  6  produces  a  uniform  compactness 
by  allowing  the  cement  to  fall  from  a  coarse  sieve  a, 
suspended  on  hangers  b  to  permit 
shaking,  and  fixed  at  a  distance  of 
three  feet  above  the  top  of  the 
measuring  box  c. 

22.  Sandglass.     For  the  purpose 
of  indicating  the  time  of  mixing  to 
be  used  for  making  cement  paste, 
a   sandglass,   Fig.   7,   is   employed. 
Such  glasses  can  be  purchased,  hav- 
ing a  duration  of  flow  of  about  two 

...  minutes. 

Fig.  7.  —  Sandglass 

23.  Trowels.     For  use  in  cement 
laboratories  pointing  trowels,   Fig.  8,  or  masons' 
trowels,   are  most  useful.     The  most  convenient 
sizes  are  five-inch,  six-inch,  and  ten-inch  trowels. 


Fig.  8.  —  Mason's  Trowel 


24.  Balances  and  Scales.  For  most  of  the 
weighing  to  be  done  in  a  cement  laboratory  the 
Harvard  trip  balance,  Fig.  ga,  or  a  scale  with  a 


DESCRIPTION  OF  APPARATUS  15 

scoop,  Fig.  gb,  will  be  found  satisfactory.  The 
latter  balance  is  probably  a  little  better,  since  no 
time  is  required  to  balance  the  pan. 


Fig.  pa.  —  Harvard  Trip  Balance 


Fig.  gb.  —  Scale  for  Cement  and  Sand 


Fig.  10.  —  Triple-Beam  Balance 


i6 


MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 


25.  For  use  in  making   specific  gravity  deter- 
minations a  balance  of   better  quality  should  be 
used,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  a  fine  balance 
of  high  grade.     The  triple-beam  balance,  shown  in 
Fig.  10,  is  entirely  satisfactory. 

26.  For  determining  the  fineness  of  cement  a 
special  scale,  Fig.  n,  is  much  used.     This  scale  has 
a  set  of  weights  which  have  a  unit  such  that  1000 


Fig.  ii.  —  Scale  for  Determining  Fineness  of  Cement 


Fig.  12.  —  Displacement  Flasks 


DESCRIPTION  OF  APPARATUS  17 


Fig.  iza.  —  Displacement  Flasks  —  Continued 


i8 


MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 


units  of  cement  will  be  a  convenient  quantity  for 
one  determination,  and  thus  each  unit  is  equivalent 
to  one-tenth  of  one  per  cent  of  the  total. 

27.  Displacement  Flasks.  For  the  purpose  of 
determining  the  specific  gravity  of  cement,  a  flask 
is  used  which  is  graduated  to  indicate  the  volume 
displaced  by  the  introduction  of  a  small 
quantity  of  cement  into  the  liquid  within 
the  flask.  Various  types  of  flasks  can  be 
obtained  from  the  makers,  some  of  which 
are  shown  in  Fig.  12.  The  apparatus  rec- 
ommended by  the  American  Society  of  Civil 
Engineers  is  the  Le  Chatelier's  flask,  which 
when  in  use  is  to  be  immersed  in  a  jar  of 
water  to  reduce  the  amount  of  the  varia- 
tion in  the  temperature  of  the 
liquid  within  the  flask.  The 
Le  Chatelier's  apparatus  is  illus- 
trated and  described  in  Appen- 
dix I,  page  179. 

28.  Measuring  Glasses.  For 
the  purpose  of  measuring  the 
quantity  of  water  to  be  used  in 
making  cement  paste  or  mortar, 
a  graduated  cylinder,  Fig.  13, 
will  be  found  useful.  The  sizes 
which  will  usually  be  of  the 
most  service  are  those  having 
capacities  of  100  c.c.,  250  c.c.,  and  500  c.c. 


Fig.  13.— Grad- 
uated Cylinder 


50 


<ig.  14.— 
Burette 


It  is 


desirable  to  have  both  a  small-sized  and  a  large- 
sized  cylinder  at  hand. 


DESCRIPTION  OF   APPARATUS  19 

29.  If  water  is  piped  to  the  mixing  table  a  bu- 
rette, Fig.  14,  may  be  fastened  beneath  the  tap  and 
water  measured  in  the  burette. 

30.  Vicat    Apparatus.*    The    Vicat    apparatus, 
Fig.  15,  is  a  device  for  measuring  the  distance  which 


Fig.  15.  —  Vicat  Apparatus 

a  weighted  needle  or  weighted  plunger  will  penetrate 
a  ring  filled  with  cement  paste.  There  are  two 
caps  for  each  machine.  The  lighter  cap  is  to  be 
used  only  when  the  plunger  is  attached  to  the  lower 
end  of  the  piston,  and  the  heavy  cap  is  to  be  used 

*  For  a  further  description  of  the  Vicat  apparatus,  see  Appen- 
dix I,  page  183. 


20  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

i 

only  when  the  needle  is  in  use.     Care  must  be 
exercised  to  see  that  the  proper  cap  is  being  used. 

31.  The  Vicat  apparatus  is  used  for  determining 
the  proper  percentage  of  water  to  be  used  in  gaug- 
ing the  cement,  and  also  for  determining  the  rate 
of  setting.     The  plunger  is  employed  for  the  first 
purpose  and  the  needle  for  the  latter. 

32.  Gillmore's    Needles.     Another    instrument 
for  determining  the  time  of  setting  of  a  sample  of 
cement  paste  is  Gillmore's  needle,  which  consists 
of  weighted  wire  or  needle  which  is  held  in  the  hand 
and  is  brought  to  rest  upon  the  surface  of  the  paste. 
Two  needles,  Fig.  16,  are  required,  one  having  a 


Fig.  16.  —  Gillmore's  Needles 


weight  of  one-fourth  pound  and  a  bearing  area  of 
one-twelfth  inch,  and  one  having  a  weight  of  one 
pound  and  a  bearing  area  of  one-twenty-fourth 
inch.  The  initial  set  is  said  to  have  taken  place 
when  a  pat  of  cement  will  just  support  the  light  wire, 
and  the  final  set  when  it  will  support  the  heavy  wire. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  APPARATUS  21 

33.  Molds.  The  molds  ordinarily  employed  in 
making  specimens  for  determining  the  tensile 
strength  of  cement  mortar  are  .of  two  kinds,  individ- 
ual molds  and  gang  molds,  both  of  whicri  are  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  17.  The  form  of  briquette  which  is 


Fig.  17.  —  Briquette  Molds 

recommended  by  the  American   Society  of   Civil 
Engineers  is  shown  in  Fig.  63,  page  188. 

34.  For  the  purpose  of  making  specimens  for 
compression  tests  of  cement  mortar,  one-inch  and 
two-inch  cube  molds,  similar  to 

the   one   shown  in  Fig.    18,  are 
ordinarily  used. 

35.  Molds  for  concrete  speci- 
mens are  usually  made  of  wood.* 

~      ,    .  i  j     r         •      •      i.        r          FiS-  l8-  — Cube  Mold 

Cast-iron  molds  for  six-inch  cubes 

similar  to  Fig.  18  are  sold  by  the  manufacturers, 

*  For  molds  for  shear  specimens  see  page  95, 


22 


MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 


and  for  cylindrical  specimens  molds  similar  to 
that  shown  in  Fig.  19  are  obtainable.  Wooden 
molds  for  laboratory  use  should  be  made  of  mate- 
rial which  is  sufficiently  heavy  to  prevent  it  from 


Fig.  19.  —  Cylindrical  Mold 

springing  out  of  shape  while  casting  the  concrete, 
should  be  carefully  made  to  insure  true  specimens, 
and  should  be  held  by  clamps  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  molds  can  be  easily  removed  from  the 
specimens,  and  easily  put  together  for  casting  new 
specimens.  One  convenient  arrangement  is  shown 


DESCRIPTION   OF  APPARATUS 


in  Fig.  20,  in  which  the  pieces  a  are  the  sides  of  the 
mold,  b  is  the  piece  forming  the  end  of  the  mold, 
and  is  held  in  place  by  resting  in  a  groove  in  each 
side  piece.  The  pieces  c  of  the  clamp  are  held  in 
place  by  a  spreader  d  at  the  top  and  a  bolt  e.  To 
remove  the  clamp  the  bolt  e  is  loosened  just  enough 


t> 


Fig.  20.  —  Cross  Section  of  Mold  for  Concrete  Beams 

to  permit  the  spreader  d  to  be  removed,  after 
which  the  clamp  may  be  withdrawn  from  the  mold, 
and  the  sides  of  mold  can  then  be  removed. 

36.  Molding  Machines.  The  most  common 
method  of  molding  briquettes  is  by  hand,  although 
machines  for  this  purpose  can  be  obtained  from 
the  manufacturer.  Two  machines  of  this  kind  are 
the  Olsen  press,  Fig.  21,  and  the  Bohme  hammer, 
Fig.  22.  With  the  Olsen  press  the  briquette  is 
molded  by  rotating  the  hand  wheel  which  presses 
the  mortar  into  a  mold  held  in  a  clamp  at  the  top 


24  MATERIALS   TESTING  MANUAL 


Fig.  22.  —  B'dhme  Hammer 


DESCRIPTION  OF  APPARATUS  25 

of  the  machine.  The  amount  of  the  pressure  is 
recorded  by  the  dial  attached  to  the  machine. 
With  the  Bohme  hammer  the  briquette  is  molded 
by  compacting  the  mortar  with  a  fixed  number  of 
blows  of  a  hammer,  the  machine  being  arranged  to 
stop  automatically  when  the  proper  number  of 
blows  have  been  given. 

37.  The   greatest    value   of   briquette   molding 
machines  in  a  laboratory  is  to  illustrate  the  effect 
of  different  methods  working  cement  mortar.     The 
two  machines  illustrated  in  Figs.   21   and  22  are 
examples  of  the  two  classes  into  which  all  molding 
machines  might  be  divided,  viz.:  (i)    Machines  in 
which  a  steady  pressure  is  employed,  and  (2)    Ma- 
chines in  which  the  mortar  is  compacted  by  a  blow. 
A  comparison  of  the  results  obtained  from  two  such 
machines  is  of  value  to  a  student  to  indicate  the 
probable  effect  of  different  methods  of  manipulat- 
ing cement  in  practical  work. 

38.  Boiler  for  Accelerated  Tests.      For  use  in 
making  boiling  and  steam  tests  a  closed  vessel  is 
employed,  having  one  or  more  racks  upon  which 
the  specimens  are  placed.      If  the  vessel  is  used 
for  both  boiling  and  steam  tests,  it  is  necessary 
to  have  two  racks,  one  of  which  shall  remain  above 
the  water  level,  and  one  below.     The  boiler  recom- 
mended by  the  Committee  on  Uniform  Tests  of 
Cement  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers 
is  shown  in  Fig.  66,  page  193.     This  boiler  is  in- 
tended for  steaming  tests  only,  arid  therefore  is 


26  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

provided  with  but  one  rack.  This  apparatus  is 
arranged  to  maintain  the  level  of  the  water  three 
inches  above  the  top  of  the  boiler. 

39.  Moist  Closet.*    A  moist  closet  is  a  box  or 
chamber   arranged    so   that   the   air   within   may 
be   kept  moist.     It   is   used   for   the   storage  of 
test   specimens   from   the   time   of   making   until 
they  are  immersed  in  water,  usually  twenty-four 
hours. 

40.  In  some  laboratories  the  test  specimens  are 
placed  under  a  wet  cloth  instead  of  being  placed 
in  a  moist  chamber.     The  principal  objection  to 
this  is  that  the  cloth  is  likely  to  dry  out,  and  is 
then  of  no  service.     To  maintain  the  cloth  in  a 
moist   condition   the   ends   may   be   immersed   in 
water,  or  a  large  pan  may  be  turned  upside  down 
over    the    specimens   and    cloth.      Of    these    two 
methods  the  writer  prefers  the  latter,  because  he 
believes  that  it  will  produce  a  more  nearly  uniform 
condition  for  all  of  the  specimens  than  will  the  first 
method.     If  a  pan  is  used  it  should  entirely  cover 
all  of  the  objects  beneath  it  so  that  the  entire  rim 
of  the  pan  may  rest  upon  the  table,  thus  preventing 
air  currents  from  carrying  away  the  moisture.     If 
these  precautions  are  observed,  there  will  be  no 
difficulty  in  maintaining  a  moist  condition  of  the 
cloth  and  air  for  twenty-four  hours. 

41.  Storage  Tank.    Test  specimens  are  usually 
stored  in  water  from  the  time  they  are  removed 

*  See  paragraph  63,  page  190. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  APPARATUS  27 

from  the  moist  chamber  until  they  are  tested. 
For  this  purpose  a  storage  tank  is  required  which 
shall  have  a  sufficient  capacity  to  accommodate  all 
of  the  specimens  which  are  likely  to  be  in  storage 
at  one  time.  For  convenience  in  using,  such  a  tank 
should  have  a  waste  pipe,  an  overflow  pipe  leading 
to  the  waste  pipe,  and  a  supply  pipe.  If  the  tank 
is  in  a  place  which  is  open  to  the  public,  it  is  well  to 
have  the  valves  controlling  the  supply  and  waste 
pipes  either  locked  or  in  a  position  such  that  they 
are  not  likely  to  be  disturbed.  It  is  also  advisable 
to  have  a  cover  upon  the  tank  which  can  be  locked, 
so  that  specimens  which  are  kept  in  storage  for 
long-time  tests  may  not  be  disturbed. 

42.  Cement  Testing  Machines.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  tensile  or  the  compressive 
strength  of  test  specimens  a  testing  machine  is 
used.  A  great  variety  of  machines  are  upon  the 
market,  of  which  three  styles  of  machines  for 
determining  the  tensile  strength  of  cement  are 
shown  in  Figs.  23,  24,  and  25,  and  one  type  of 
machine  for  determining  the  compressive  strength 
of  small  specimens  is  shown  in  Fig.  26.  Some 
machines  are  arranged  so  that  they  may  be  used 
for  both  tensile  and  compressive  tests.  However, 
since  very  few  compressive  tests  of  cement  are 
made,  most  of  the  testing  machines  employed  are 
for  tensile  tests.  For  testing  concrete,  compres- 
sive tests  are  often  made,  but  for  this  purpose  large 
testing  machines  are  employed. 


28 


MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 


,-K 


Fig.  23.  —  Automatic  Testing  Machine 

43.  The  most  common  types  of  cement  testing 
machines  produce  a  stress  upon  the  briquette  by 
means  of  a  stream  of  shot  which  runs  from  a 
chamber  of  the  machine  into  a  pail  or  vessel. 
When  the  briquette  breaks,  the  stream  of  shot  is 
automatically  stopped,  and  the  amount  of  the  stress 
is  determined  by  weighing  or  noting  the  weight  of 
the  shot  in  the  vessel.  The  scale  employed  in  the 


DESCRIPTION  OF  APPARATUS  29 

weighing  is  so  graduated  that  it  indicates  directly 
the  stress  upon  the  briquette,  instead  of  the  actual 
weight  of  the  shot.  The  more  improved  forms 
of  machines  are  arranged  so  that  the  beam  of  the 


Fig.  24.  —  Automatic  Testing  Machine 

r 

machine  can  be  kept  horizontal  while  the  stress  is 
being  applied.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  it  is  usually 
necessary  to  estimate  the  amount  of  tension  which 
must  be  applied  to  the  briquette  in  placing  it  in 
the  machine,  in  order  that  the  beam  may  be  nearly 


30  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

horizontal  when  the  specimen  breaks.  The  result 
is  that  weak  specimens  are  often  broken  while 
being  placed  in  the  machine,  and  very  strong  speci- 
mens have  to  be  reset  in  the  machine,  during  which 
process  they  are  likely  to  be  broken. 


Fig.  25.  —  Cement  Testing  Machine  with  Moving  Weight 

44.  The  capacities  which  are  usually  employed 
for  tensile-testing  machines  are  1000  and  2000 
pounds.  For  ordinary  laboratory  work  the  lower 
capacity  is  probably  the  better,  since  very  few 
briquettes  will  exceed  1000  pounds  in  strength, 
and  since  the  lighter  machine  will  act  a  little  more 
quickly  in  shutting  off  the  supply  of  shot. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  APPARATUS  31 


Fig.  26.  —  Machine  for  Compressive  Tests 


32  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

45.  Hydraulic  Testing  Machines.  A  consider- 
able number  of  hydraulic  testing  machines  of 
various  types  and  sizes  are  in  use,  two  of  which  are 
illustrated  in  Fig.  26  and  Fig.  27.  The  first  is 


..  _ ....._    ..    -r- 

Fig.  27.  —  Hydraulic  Transverse  Testing  Machine 

for  compression  tests  and  has  a  capacity  of  40,000 
pounds.  It  is  particularly  adapted  to  making 
compression  tests  of  small  specimens  of  concrete. 
The  second  is  for  transverse  tests  and  has  a  capacity 
of  100,000  pounds.  A  common  method  of  measur- 
ing the  load  which  is  applied  with  hydraulic  ma- 
chines is  by  means  of  a  pressure  gauge  which  is 
affected  by  the  pressure  of  the  liquid  in  the  cylin- 
der containing  the  plunger.  This  arrangement  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  26.  The  objections  to  this 
method  of  determining  the  load  are  that  the  fric- 
tion of  the  plunger  may  slightly  affect  the  results 
and  that  the  calibration  of  the  pressure  gauge  may 
need  to  be  checked  occasionally.  The  machine 


DESCRIPTION   OF   APPARATUS 


33 


shown  in  Fig.  27  avoids  these  objections  by  em- 
ploying a  scale  beam  which  is  independent  of  the 
hydraulic  cylinder. 

46.   Vertical-screw     Testing     Machines.      The 
most  common  type  of  testing  machine  which  is 


Fig.  28.  —  Vertical-screw  Testing  Machine 

employed  in  laboratories  for  tensile,  compressive, 
and  flexural  tests  of  wood,  iron,  and  steel  is  the 
vertical- screw  testing  machine.  A  large  number 
of  styles  of  these  machines  are  manufactured, 


34  MATERIALS   TESTING  MANUAL 

some  of  which  are  particularly  suited  for  certain 
kinds  of  .tests.  One  of  the  common  types  is  shown 
in  Fig.  2&.  Similar  machines  can  be  obtained 
with  maximum  capacities  ranging  from  10,000  to 
400,000  pounds.  Machines  with  even  larger  capac- 
ities can  be  built,  which  utilize  the  same  method 
of  applying  and  measuring  the  load.  Machines 
which  are  intended  for  testing  columns  have  long 
vertical  screws  and  long  upright  standards,  and 
those  which  are  intended  for  testing  long  beams 
have  wings  attached  to  opposite  sides  of  the  plat- 
form. 

47.  Vertical-screw  testing   machines    are   made 
with  two  screws  and  with  three  screws  as  well  as 
with  four  screws.     A  two-screw  machine  which  is 
adapted  to  a  large  range  of  tests  is  shown  in  Fig.  29. 
This  machine  has  an  upper  head  which  can  be 
shifted    to    accommodate    specimens    of    various 
lengths,  the  standards  being  long  enough  to  accom- 
modate tensile  and  compressive  specimens  six  feet 
in  length.     It  is  also  provided  with  a  long  table 
for   transverse   specimens.     The   capacity   of   this 
machine  is  300,000  pounds. 

48.  The  machine  which  is  -shown  in  Fig.  28  has 
one  movable  head  which  is  attached  to  four  ver- 
tical screws.     The  screws  pass  through  loose  holes 
in  the  platform  of  the  machine  to  the  gears  in  the 
base   of  the  machine.     The   movement   of   these 
gears  causes  the  vertical  screws  and  the  attached 
head  to  move  up  or  down  as  desired.    The  load  is 


DESCRIPTION  OF   APPARATUS 


35 


Fig.  29.  —  Two-screw  Testing  Machine 

applied  only  with  the  downward  movement.  The 
platform  of  the  machine  is  supported  by  levers, 
which  are  connected  with  the  scale  beam.  Upon 
the  platform  are  four  vertical  standards  to  which 
the  upper  head  of  the  machine  is  rigidly  attached. 


36  MATERIALS   TESTING   MANUAL 

In  making  tensile  tests  the  specimen  is  held  at  the 
upper  end  by  grips  attached  to  the  fixed  head, 
and  at  the  lower  end  by  grips  attached  to  the 
movable  head.  As  the  movable  head  moves 
downward  the  specimen  is  elongated,  the  amount 
of  the  pull  being  transferred  to  the  platform 
through  the  vertical  standards,  the  amount  of 
which  load  is  then  measured  by  the  scale  beam. 
As  the  load  increases  the  poise  of  the  scale  beam  is 
moved  forward  to  keep  the  beam  balanced. 

49.  For    compression    tests    the    grips    are   re- 
moved from  the  lower  head  and  a  bearing  plate 
is  attached  to  the  under  side  of  the  head.     The 
specimen  is  placed  between  the  bearing  face  and 
the  platform.     As  the  head  moves  downward  the 
specimen  is   compressed  and  the  amount  of  the 
load  which  is  transferred  to  the  platform  is  meas- 
ured by  the  scale  beam,  as  described  for  tensile 
tests. 

50.  Transverse  Testing  Machines.     For  the  pur- 
pose of  testing  large  beams  of  wood,  steel,  and  re- 
inforced concrete,  vertical-screw  testing  machines 
are   generally   used.     However,    for    class   use   in 
testing    small    wooden    beams,    particularly    for 
specimens  which  are  sufficiently  slender  to  obtain 
good  observations  of  the  deflection,  a  machine  of 
smaller  capacity  than  most  vertical-screw  testing 
machines  is  desirable.     For  this  purpose  the  ma- 
chine illustrated  in  Fig.  30  is  well  adapted.     It  has 
a  capacity  of  10,000  pounds  and  will  take  specimens 


DESCRIPTION   OF   APPARATUS 


37 


three  inches  square,  with  a  length  not  exceeding 
five  feet.  By  using  slender  specimens  the  deflection 
at  any  point  can  be  fairly  well  determined  by  direct 


Fig.  30.  —  Transverse  Testing  Machine  for  Small  Specimens 

measurement  with  a  rule  or  scale,  or  the  deflection 
can  be  observed  with  the  device  shown  in  the 
cut. 

51.   Torsion  Testing  Machines.     In   Fig.  31  is 
shown  one  style  of  machine  for  making  torsion 


MATERIALS   TESTING   MANUAL 


tests  of  steel  shafting.  The  specimen  is  held  at 
each  end  by  chucks,  one  of  which  is  rotated  by  gear 
wheels,  while  the  other  is  connected  to  a  scale 
beam,  which  indicates  the  amount  of  the  load  in 


Fig.  31.  —  Torsion  Testing  Machine 


are 


pound-inches.     The    heads    of   the   machines 
graduated  in  degrees,  for  observing  the  amount 
of  the  twist. 

52.  Impact  Testing  Machines.  Two  types  of 
machines  for  making  impact  tests  are  illustrated 
by  Figs.  32  and  33.  In  each  case  the  machine 
indicates  the  energy  of  the  blow  upon  the  speci- 
men, the  energy  being  determined  by  knowing  the 


DESCRIPTION   OF   APPARATUS 


39 


weight  of  the  hammer  and  the  distance  through 
which  it  falls.  The  first  type  of  machine  is  adapted 
to  comparatively  small  sizes,  but  the  machine 


Fig.  32.  —  Heisler  Impact  Machine 

shown  in  Fig.  33  can  be  obtained  in  sizes  suitable 
for  testing  large  specimens. 

53.  In  Fig.  34  is  shown  an  impact  machine 
which  is  used  for  testing  the  toughness  of  macadam 
rock.  The  machine  consists  of  an  anvil  of  50  kg. 
weight,  to  which  is  connected  the  frame  carrying 
the  operating  parts.  The  hammer  weighs  2  kg. 


Fig.  33.  —  Turner  Impact  Machine 


(40) 


DESCRIPTION  OF  APPARATUS 


Fig.  34.  —  Impact  Machine  for  Macadam  Rock 


42  MATERIALS   TESTING   MANUAL 

and  is  arranged  so  it  may  be  dropped  by  incre- 
ments of  i  cm.  up  to  90  cm.  upon  an  intervening 
plunger  of  i  kg.  weight,  which  rests  on  the  test 
piece.  The  hammer  is  drawn  up  by  power  and 
is  automatically  released  at  the  point  set  by  the 
operator. 

54.  Cold-bend  Testing  Machines.    A  machine 
for  making  cold-bend  tests  of  iron  and  steel  speci- 
mens is  illustrated  in  Fig.  35.     The  specimen  can 
be  bent  through  an  angle  of   180  degrees.     The 
nature  of  the  bend  or  the  point  at  which  fracture 
occurs  is  observed. 

55.  Abrasion  Cylinders.    Abrasion  tests  of  pav- 
ing brick  are  made  with  an  abrasion  cylinder  or 
rattler.     The  standard  rattler  test  recommended 
by  the  National  Brick  Makers'  Association  is  made 
with  a  rattler  of  the  type  shown  in  Fig.  36,  the 
cylinder  frequently  being  enclosed  in  a  dust-proof 
case.     With  this  machine  the  brick  to  be  tested 
are  dumped  into  the  cylinder  with  the  specified 
charge  of  cast-iron  shot,  and  after  the  prescribed 
number  of  revolutions  the  loss  by  weight,  due  to 
the  abrasion,  is  determined. 

56.  An  abrasion  cylinder  designed  by  Professor 
A.  N.  Talbot,  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  con- 
sists of  a  short  cylinder,  the  inside  circumference 
of  which  is  covered  with  the  brick  to  be  tested. 
The  brick  are  clamped  in  place,  and  as  the  cylinder 
revolves  the  abrasive  materials  impinge  upon  the 
exposed  edges  of  the  brick. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  APPARATUS 


Fig.  35.  —  Cold-bend  Testing  Machine 


44 


MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 


57.  The  abrasion  machine  shown  in  Fig.  37  is 
used  for  abrasion  tests  of  stone  for  road  construc- 
tion. The  cylinders  are  each  20  cm.  in  diameter 
by  34  cm.  in  length  and  are  mounted  at  an  angle 
of  30  degrees  with  the  axis  of  rotation.  No  abra- 
sive material  in  addition  to  the  stone  is  used  with 
this  machine. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  APPARATUS 


45 


46  MATERIALS   TESTING   MANUAL 

58.  Micrometers.     For  the  careful  measurement 
of  the  diameter  or  size  of  cross  section  of  small 
specimens    either   a   micrometer,  similar  to   that 
shown  in  Fig.  38,  or  a  pair  of  slide  calipers  is  suit- 
able.    For  the  measure- 
ment  of   flat    specimens 
two  micrometers  are  use- 
ful,   in    order    that    one 
may   be   allowed   to   re- 

Fig.  38.  —  Micrometer 

mam  at  the  approximate 

setting  for  the  width,  while  the  other  is  at  the 
approximate  setting  for  the  thickness. 

59.  Laying-off  and  Per-cent  Gauge.    Thelaying- 
off  gauge,  shown  in  Fig.  39,  is  used  in  marking 
steel  tensile  specimens  and  in  measuring  the  elon- 
gation.    The  gauge  is  first  laid  upon  the  specimen 
and  a  length  of  eight  inches  is  divided  into  one- 


40         30         20         10  P\         P\         (~\        f~\ 

MMlMMlm.lnnlmL.lMMlMMl.ml     \J     \J     \J     \ 

Fig.  39.  —  Laying-off  and  Per-cent  Gauge 

inch  spaces  by  means  of  a  scratch  awl.  After 
rupture  the  two  pieces  of  the  specimen  are  laid 
together,  with  the  fractured  ends  joining,  and  the 
gauge  is  used  to  measure  the  elongation.  The 
units  of  the  graduation  at  the  end  of  the  gauge  are 
one  per  cent  of  the  gauge  length  (eight  inches) .  By 
observing  the  marks  which  were  originally  one  inch 
apart  the  elongation  for  each  inch  can  be  noted. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  APPARATUS 


47 


60.   Extensometers  and  Deformeters.     An  ex- 

tensometer  is  a  device  for  measuring  the  elonga- 
tion in  a  given  length  of  a  specimen  which  is  sub- 


jected to  tension.  A  deformeter  is  a  device  for 
measuring  the  deformation  which  occurs  in  a  given 
length  of  a  specimen.  The  two  most  common 
principles  employed  in  instruments  of  this  kind 


48  MATERIALS   TESTING   MANUAL 

are  the  micrometer  and  the  vernier  and  dial.  Two 
applications  of  the  vernier  and  dial  are  shown  in 
Figs.  40  and  41,  both  instruments  being  adapted 
to  the  measurement  of  the  deformation  for  tests 


Fig.  41.  —  Deformeter  for  Tension  and  Compression  Tests 

either  in  tension  or  in  compression.  Three  microm- 
eter instruments  are  shown  in  Figs.  42,  43,  and 
44.  The  first  is  for  tensile  tests,  the  second  for 
compressive  tests,  and  the  third  may  be  used  for 


DESCRIPTION  OF  APPARATUS 


49 


either,  but  it  is  intended  for  specimens  of  concrete 
in  the  form  of  cylinders  eight  inches  in  diameter. 
In  using  the  micrometer  instruments  the  parts  are 


Fig.  42.  —  Duplex  Micrometer  Extensometer 

connected  to  an  electric  bell  circuit  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  circuit  will  be  closed  by  bringing  the 
point  of  either  micrometer  in  contact  with  its  bear- 
ing surface.  As  soon  as  the  bell  rings  the  reading 


50  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 


Fig.  43.  —  Duplex  Compression  Micrometer 

of  the  micrometer  is  observed,  and  the  micrometer 
screw  is  run  backward  far  enough  to  prevent  further 
contact  until  another  reading  is  desired. 

61.   Two  deformeters  for  use  in  testing  beams  and 
columns  are  shown  in  Figs.  45  and  46. 


Fig.  44.  —  Duplex  Def ormeter  for  Concrete 


Fig.  45.  —  Dial  Deformeter  for  Beams 

(Si) 


MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 


DESCRIPTION   OF   APPARATUS 


53 


54 


MATERIALS  TESTING   MANUAL 


62.  Deflection  Instruments.  For  measuring  the 
deflection  of  small  beams,  such  as  specimens  of 
cast  iron,  the  deflection  instrument  shown  in  Fig.  47 
is  suitable.  These  instruments  can  also  be  obtained 
with  a  vernier  attached  to  the  end  of  the  indi- 
cator arm.  The  scale  reads  directly  to  o.oi  inch 
of  actual  deflection  and  the  vernier  reads  to  o.ooi 
inch. 


HU5,  OLSE 


Fig.  48.  —  Capp's  Multiplying  Dividers 

63.  Multiplying  Dividers.  The  instrument 
shown  in  Fig.  48  is  used  in  determining  the  yield 
point  of  metal  specimens  tested  in  tension.  Two 
prick  marks  are  made  on  the  test  piece,  two  inches 
apart,  and  the  dividers  are  held  against  the  speci- 
men with  the  points  in  the  prick  marks.  The 
motion  of  the  pointers  is  watched,  and  the  yield 
point  is  determined  by  noting  the  load  at  which 
the  rate  of  travel  of  the  pointer  suddenly  increases. 


CHAPTER  III. 
TESTS   OF  CEMENT. 


PROBLEM  Ai. 

Determination  of  Fineness  of  Cement. 

64.  Object.    The  object  of  this  experiment  is 
to   determine   how   finely   the   given   samples   of 
cement  have  been  ground. 

65.  Apparatus  Required.    One  set  of  sieves  *  with 
cover  and  pan,  scale  for  testing  fineness,  or  a  fine 
balance,  with  set  of  weights,  apparatus  for  drying 
cement,  and  one  No.  20  sieve. 

66.  Materials  Required.     50  or   100  grams  of 
each  assigned  cement. 

67.  Method  of  Operation.     Thoroughly  dry  the 
cement,  and  then  screen  a  small  quantity  through 
the  No.  20  sieve,  to  remove  the  coarse  lumps.     Of 
the  cement  which  passes  through  the  sieve  weigh 
out  1000  units  if  Richie's  scale  for  fineness  is  used, 
or  50  grams  if  a  fine  balance  is  used.     Place  the 
quantity  thus  weighed  upon  the  No.   200  sieve, 
having  the  pan  attached  at  the  time.     Place  the 
cover  upon  the  sieve  and  shake,  holding  the  sieve 

*  The  set  of  sieves  should  include  a  No.  100  sieve  and  a  No. 
200  sieve. 

55 


56  MATERIALS  TESTING   MANUAL 

in  a  slightly  inclined  position,  and  strike  it  gently 
with  the  palm  of  the  hand  at  the  rate  of  about  200 
strokes  per  minute.  Continue  this  operation  until 
not  more  than  one-tenth  of  one  per  cent  passes 
through  during  one  minute  of  continuous  sieving. 
Then  weigh  the  residue  retained  upon  the  sieve 
and  also  the  material  in  the  pan.  Next  attach  the 
No.  100  sieve  to  the  pan,  and  place  upon  the  sieve 
the  residue  caught  upon  the  No.  200  sieve.  The 
sieving  is  then  continued  in  the  same  manner  as 
with  the  No.  200  sieve.  After  completing  the 
operation  with  this  sieve  the  residue  is  placed  upon 
the  next  coarser  sieve,  and  so  on  until  all  of  the 
sieves  in  the  set  have  been  used. 

68.  After  completing  the  determination  for  one 
of  the  assigned  cements  determine  the  fineness  of 
the  other  brand  in  the  same  manner. 

69.  Report.     In  the  report  state  the  quantities 
retained  and   the   quantities  passing  each  sieve. 
Also  report  the  per  cent  of  the  total  which  is  re- 
tained upon  each  sieve  and  the  per  cent  which 
passes,  stating  the  results  to  the  nearest  tenth  of 
one  per  cent.     Compare  the  results  with  the  speci- 
fication in  Appendix  II.    Also  note  the  errors  of 
the  experiment. 


TESTS  OF  CEMENT  57 

PROBLEM  A2. 

Weight  of  Cement. 

70.  Object.     The  object  of  this  experiment  is 
to  determine  the  weight  of  a  unit  volume  of  dry 
cement. 

71.  Apparatus  Required.     Standard  sifting  box.* 

72.  Materials  Required.    About  one-half  peck 
of  each  assigned  cement. 

73 .  Method  of  Operation.    Place  a  small  quantity 
of  cement  upon  the  sieve  of  the  standard  sifting 
box,  and  shake  the  sieve.     Continue  to  add  small 
quantities  of  cement  and  to  shake  the  sieve  until 
the  box  at  the  bottom  is  filled.     When  the  meas- 
uring box  is  full  remove  it  carefully,  and  strike  the 
top  of  the  cement  level  with  the  sides  of  the  box 
by  means  of  a  straight  edge.     Then  weigh  the  box 
together  with  the  cement  contained.     Also  weigh 
the  box  empty,  and  measure  its  inside  dimensions. 

74.  Repeat  the  entire  operation  with  the  other 
assigned  cement. 

75.  After  using  the  cement  for  this  experiment  do 
not  return  it  to  the  cans  or  bins  from  which  it  was 
taken,  unless  special  instructions  to  that  effect  have 
been  given,  but  place  it  in  the  waste-cement  can. 

76.  Report.     Compute  and  tabulate  the  weight 
in  pounds  per  bushel  and  in  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 
Also  state  the  capacity  of  the  box. 

*  See  Fig.  6,  page  13. 


58  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

PROBLEM  AS. 

Specific  Gravity  of  Cement* 

77.  Object.     The  object  of  this  experiment  is 
to   determine   the   specific   gravity   of   the   given 
samples  of  cement. 

78.  Apparatus    Required.     Le    Chatelier    flask 
with  jar  and  small  funnel,  f  glass  rod,  pipette,  ther- 
mometer, small  scoop,  balance  and  set  of  weights, 
ring  stand  or  other  similar  support,  and  apparatus 
for  drying  cement. 

79.  Materials    Required.     200  .grams   of   each 
assigned  cement,  and  about  one  quart  of  benzine. 

80.  Method  of  Operation.     Place  a  small  quan- 
tity of  each  assigned  cement  (75  grams)  on  an  iron 
plate  and  dry  thoroughly.     While  these  samples 
are  drying  determine  the  specific  gravity  of  each 
cement  in  its  undried  condition. 

81.  Place  enough  water  in  the  jar  of  the  Le 
Chatelier  apparatus  to  half  fill  it.     Insert  enough 
benzine  J  into  the  flask  to  bring  the  surface  just  a 
little  above  the  mark  below  the  small  bulb.     Place 
the  flask  .in  the  jar  of  water  and  allow  the  benzine 
and  water  to  attain  the  same  temperature.     Ar- 

*  For  a  discussion  of  the  usefulness  of  the  specific  gravity  test, 
see  "  The  Specific  Gravity  of  Portland  Cement,"  by  Richard  K. 
Meade  and  Lester  C.  Hawk,  Proc.  Am.  Soc.  for  Testing  Mate- 
rials, vol.  vii,  p.  363. 

t  See  Fig.  61,  page  179. 

J  See  paragraph  n,  page  180. 


TESTS  OF  CEMENT  59 

range  the  ring  stand  so  that  the  flask  will  be  held 
vertically  in  the  jar  of  water  and  so  that  the  small 
funnel  will  extend  about  an  inch  into  the  top  of  the 
flask.  By  means  of  the  pipette  withdraw  enough 
benzine  to  bring  the  surface  exactly  to  the  mark 
below  the  small  bulb.  Weigh  out  65  grams  of 
cement,  and  insert  it  into  the  flask  through  the 
funnel,  a  little  at  a  time,  first  noting  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  water.  A  little  of  the  cement  can  be 
taken  in  the  scoop  and  can  be  passed  through  the 
funnel  by  using  the  glass  rod.  It  is  necessary  to 
introduce  only  a  small  quantity  of  cement  at  a 
time  to  prevent  clogging  the  stem  of  the  flask  near 
the  surface  of  the  gasoline,  and  also  to  prevent  air 
bubbles  from  being  carried  into  the  liquid  with  the 
cement.  When  all  of  the  cement  has  been  inserted 
in  the  flask  read  the  position  of  the  surface  of  the 
gasoline  and  note  the  temperature  of  the  water. 

82.  The  volume  between  the  mark  below  the 
small  bulb  and  the  zero  of  the  graduation  above 
the  bulb  is  20  c.c.  The  units  of  the  graduation 
are  cubic  centimeters  and  the  smallest  divisions  are 
tenths  of  centimeters.  The  specific  gravity  of  the 
cement  will  be  65  divided  by  the  volume  dis- 
placed. If  the  temperature  of  the  benzine  has 
changed  during  the  determination,  a  correction  to 
the  apparent  displaced  volume  can  be  obtained  by 
multiplying  the  total  volume  of  benzine  used, 
by  the  number  of  degrees  change  in  temperature, 
by  the  coefficient  of  expansion  of  benzine.  (Ben- 


60  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

zine  is  not  a  very  definite  compound,  but  for  the 
purpose  of  making  this  correction  it  will  be  suffi- 
ciently exact  to  use  0.0014  as  the  coefficient  of 
expansion  per  degree  centigrade.)  The  correction 
will  be  subtracted  from  the  observed  value  of  the 
displaced  volume  for  an  increase  in  temperature, 
and  will  be  added  for  a  decrease  in  temperature. 

83.  Next  determine  the  specific  gravity  of  each 
dried  cement,  following  the  instructions  given  in 
paragraph  81,  and  being  careful  to  cool  the  cement 
to  the  temperature  of  the  liquid  before  inserting 
it  into  the  flask. 

84.  To  prepare  the  Le  Chatelier  flask  for  the 
second  determination,  pour  into  the  bottle  marked 
"  Used  Benzine  "  enough  of  the  liquid  to  lower  the 
surface  to  a  little  above  the  mark  below  the  small 
bulb,  and  then  bring  the  surface  exactly  to  the 
mark  by  means  of  the  pipette.     After  completing 
the  second  determination,  carefully  pour  into  the 
bottle  marked  "  Used  Benzine  "  as  much  of  the 
liquid  as  possible  until  the  cement  begins  to  pass 
out.     Then  shake  the  flask  over  the  waste  jar  to 
remove  the  remainder  of  the  cement  and  benzine. 
Complete  the  cleaning  by  placing  a  little  water  in 
the  flask  and  shaking  it  into  the  waste  jar.     Rinse 
two  or  three  times  to  remove  every  particle  of 
cement. 

85.  Be  careful  not  to  break  the  flask,  as  it  is 
expensive.     If  the  flask  should  be  broken,  do  not 
throw  away  the  pieces  until  you  find  whether  it 


TESTS  OF  CEMENT  6 1 

can  be  repaired,  since  in  the  latter  case  the  charge 
for  the  breakage  will  probably  be  much  less  than 
the  cost  of  a  new  flask. 

86.  Instead   of  determining  the   volume   of  a 
known  weight  of  cement  by  inserting  all  of  the  65 
grams,  the  method  of  finding  the  weight  of  a  given 
volume  could  have  been  used  by  inserting  just 
enough  cement  to  displace  some  given  volume, 
say  20  c.c.,  and  by  re  weighing  the  remainder  of  the 
cement.     In  this  case  the  specific  gravity  would 
have  been  computed  by  dividing  the  weight  of  the 
cement  introduced  by  20. 

87.  Report.     In   the    report   for   this   problem 
state   the   apparatus   by  which   each   result  was 
obtained.     State  the  difficulties  encountered  and 
the  precautions  which  should  be  observed.     State 
whether  the  specific  gravity  of  the  liquid  used 
affects  the  results,  and  state  whether  water,  alcohol, 
kerosene,   gasoline,  or  turpentine   could   be  used 
instead  of  benzine.     Report  your  results  to  the 
nearest  hundredth  and  compare  your  results  with 
the  specification  in  Appendix  II. 


62  MATERIALS  TESTING   MANUAL 

PROBLEM  A4. 

Plasticity  of  Cement  —  Boulogne  Method. 

88.  Object.    This  test  is  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  the  percentage  of  water  required  to 
produce   the   proper  plasticity   for   the   assigned 
cement  paste,  according  to  the  Boulogne  method. 

89.  Apparatus  Required.     Trowel,  pan,  beaker, 
graduated  cylinder,  and  coarse  balance  with  set  of 
weights. 

90.  Materials  Required.     1000  to  1500  grams  of 
each  assigned  cement,  and  water  for  mixing. 

91.  Method  of  Operation.     Weigh  out  500  grams 
of  cement,  place  it  upon  the  mixing  table,  form  a 
crater  at  the  center  of  the  pile,  pour  into  the  crater 
a  known  quantity  of  water  (say  2 1  per  cent  of  the 
weight  for  Portland  cements,  and  30  per  cent  for 
natural  cements),  turn  the  cement  into  the  crater 
from  the  edges  of  the  pile,  and  work  the  paste  vig- 
orously with  a  trowel  for  about  five  minutes.     To 
determine  whether  the  paste  is  of  the  proper  con- 
sistency, apply  the  following  tests:  i.   The  consis- 
tency of  the  paste  should  not  change  if  gauged  for 
an  additional  period  of  three  minutes  after  the 
initial  five  minutes.     2.   A  small  quantity  of  paste 
dropped  from  the  trowel  upon  the  mixing  table 
from  a  height  of  0.50  meter  (20  inches)  should 
leave  the  trowel  clean,  and  should  retain  its  form 
approximately  without  cracking.     3.  Asmallquan- 


TESTS   OF   CEMENT  63 

tity  of  paste  worked  gently  in  the  hands  should  be 
easily  molded  into  a  ball,  on  the  surface  of  which 
water  should  appear..  When  this  ball  is  dropped 
from  a  height  of  0.50  meter  (20  inches),  it  should 
retain  a  rounded  form  without  cracking.  4.  If  a 
slightly  smaller  quantity  of  water  be  used  the 
paste  should  be  crumbly  and  should  crack  when 
dropped  upon  the  table.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
addition  of  a  greater  quantity  of  water  —  one  or 
two  per  cent  —  should  soften  the  paste,  rendering 
it  more  sticky,  and  preventing  it  from  retaining 
its  form  when  dropped  upon  the  table. 

92.  If  the  paste  is  too  dry  to  fulfill  the  require- 
ments of  the  tests  described,  add  a  little  more 
water,  carefully  noting  the  amount,  and  repeat  the 
tests.     When  the  correct  consistency  is  obtained, 
try  a  fresh  sample  to  check  the  result,  since  some 
error  may  arise  from  adding  water  to  paste  which 
has  been  mixed  for  several  minutes. 

93.  Report.     In  reporting  this  problem  tabulate 
the  results  for  each  trial,  stating  the  character  of 
the  paste  obtained  with  each  percentage  of  water. 
Also  record  the  trials  made  with  each  mixture, 
showing  the  number  of  mixtures  for  each  brand 
of  cement.     State  the  estimated  error  in  the  results 
as  indicated  by  the  quantity  of  water  required  to 
produce  a  noticeable  change  in  the  consistency  of 
the  paste. 


64  MATERIALS   TESTING   MANUAL 

PROBLEM  AS. 

Plasticity  of  Cement  —  with  Vicat  Apparatus. 

94.  Object.     This  test  is   for  the  purpose   of 
determining  the  percentage  of  water  required  to 
proper  plasticity  for  the  assigned  cement  paste, 
by  use  of  the  Vicat  apparatus. 

95.  Apparatus  Required.     Vicat  machine  fitted 
with  plunger   and  with   cap   marked   "Piston"; 
i  vulcanite  ring,  i  plate  of  glass  about  4  inches 
by  4  inches,  sandglass,  and  the  apparatus  required 
for  Problem  4. 

96.  Materials  Required.     2000  to  2500  grams  of 
each  assigned  cement,  and  water  for  mixing. 

97.  Method  of  Operation.     Determine  the  per 
cent  of  water  required  to  make  a  plastic  paste  for 
each  assigned  cement  by  the  Tetmajer  method  and 
by  the  method  recommended  by  the  American 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 

98.  Tetmajer  Method.    Mix  500  grams  of  cement 
into  a  paste,  following  the  method  described  in 
Problem  4,  noting  the  per  cent  of  water  used. 
Place  the  ring  of  the  Vicat  apparatus  (large  end  up) 
on  a  piece  of  plate  glass,  fill  with  the  paste,  and 
carefully  smooth  off  the  top.     See  that  the  piston 
of  the  Vicat  apparatus  works  smoothly.     Then 
note  the  reading  on  the  scale  when  the  plunger 
rests  upon  the  surface  of  the  glass,  outside  of  the 
ring.     Next  bring  the  plunger  to  rest  upon  the 


TESTS  OF   CEMENT  65 

surface  of  the  paste,  then  suddenly  release  it  and 
allow  the  piston  to  descend  of  its  own  weight. 
When  it  finally  comes  to  rest,  note  the  reading  on 
the  scale.  The  paste  is  of  the  proper  consistency 
if  the  plunger  comes  to  rest  six  millimeters  above 
the  glass.  If  the  paste  is  too  dry  add  a  small 
quantity  of  water;  and  repeat  the  determinations 
until  the  proper  consistency  is  obtained.  Then 
check  the  result  with  a  fresh  mixture. 

99.  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers'  Method. 
Weigh  out  500  grams  of  cement,  place  it  upon  the 
mixing  table,  form  a  crater  at  the  center  of  the 
pile,  pour  into  the  crater  a  known  quantity  of 
water,  turn  the  dry  material  from  the  edge  of  the 
pile  into  the  crater  with  a  trowel,  and  allow  the 
material  to  stand  until  the  water  has  been  absorbed. 
Complete  the  mixing  by  vigorously  kneading  the 
paste  with  the  hands  for  one  and  one-half  minutes, 
the  process  being  similar  to  that  used  in  kneading 
dough.  (The  sandglass  is  used  to  indicate  the 
time  of  kneading.)  Form  the  paste  quickly  into 
a  ball  with  the  hands,  completing  the  operation  by 
tossing  it  six  times  from  one  hand  to  the  other, 
with  the  hands  about  six  inches  apart.  Then 
press  the  ball  into  the  ring  through  the  larger 
opening.  Place  the  ring  upon  the  glass  with  the 
small  end  up,  and  smooth  the  surface  of  the  paste 
to  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  ring.  Bring  the 
plunger  of  the  Vicat  machine  to  the  surface  of  the 
paste,  noting  the  reading  on  the  scale,  and  release 


66  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

the  plunger  quickly.  When  the  plunger  finally 
comes  to  rest,  note  the  reading  on  the  scale.  The 
paste  is  of  the  proper  consistency  if  the  piston 
comes  to  rest  10  millimeters  below  the  top  of  the 
ring.  Repeat  the  trials  in  a  similar  manner,  using 
a  fresh  mixture  each  time,  until  a  paste  is  obtained 
which  has  the  proper  consistency. 

100.  Report.  In  reporting  this  problem  follow 
the  instructions  for  Problem  A4,  and  in  addition 
to  the  results  for  Problem  A$  state  the  final  results 
for  Problem  A4,  for  comparison.  Also  plot  the  re- 
sults for  Problem  A5  upon  coordinate  paper,  using 
percentage  of  water  as  abscissas  and  depth  of 
penetration  as  ordinates.  Draw  a  curve  for  the 
plotted  values  for  each  brand  of  cement. 


TESTS  OF   CEMENT  67 

• 
PROBLEM  A6. 

Soundness  of  Cement  —  Cold-Pat  Test. 

101.  Object.     This  test  is  for  the  purpose  of 
determining   whether   the   assigned   cements   are 
likely  to  produce  cracks  or  disintegration  in  struc- 
tures in  which  they  might  be  used. 

1 02.  Apparatus  Required.    Trowel,  pan,  beaker, 
graduated  cylinder,  sandglass,  coarse  balance  with 
set  of  weights,   and   eight  pieces  of  glass  each 
about  three  inches  by  three  inches. 

103.  Materials  Required.     500  grams  of  each 
assigned  cement,  and  water  for  mixing. 

104.  Method  of  Operation.     Mix  500  grams  of 
one  of  the  assigned  cements  into  a  plastic  paste, 
using  the  per  cent  of  water  obtained  in  Problem  5 
by  the  method  recommended  by  the  American 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers.      Make  four  circular 
pats,  each  having  a  diameter  of  about  three  inches 
and  a  thickness  at  the  center  of  about  one-half  inch. 
The  edges  of  the  pat  should  be  made  as  thin  as 
possible.     Stamp  each  pat  with  the  number  of  the 
cement   and   with   the   number   of  your  locker. 
Place  the  pats  in  the  moist  chamber,  from  which 
they  will  be  removed  at  the  end  of  twenty-four 
hours,  and  will  be  placed  in  pans  having  the  same 
number  as  the  locker.     Fill  one  of  these  pans  with 
water   so   that   when   removed   from   the   moist 


68  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

chamber  two  of  the  four  pats  will  be  placed  in  air 
and  two  in  water. 

105.  Make  four  similar  pats,  using  the  other 
assigned  brand  of  cement,  and  place  them  in  the 
moist  chamber  beside  the  first  four. 

1 06.  Examine  the  pats  each  week  for  four  suc- 
cessive weeks,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  problem 
is  to  be  reported. 

107.  Report.     In  the  report  of  this  problem  state 
the  condition  in  which  each  pat  was  found  at  each 
examination.     State    whether    the   pats  loosened 
from  the  glass,  whether  the  pats  in  water  appeared 
green,  whether  the  pats  in  air  developed  brown 
spots,  whether  the  glass  was  cracked  by  the  pats 
in  water,  whether  radial  cracks  developed  near  the 
edges  of  the  pats,  and  whether  the  cement  disin- 
tegrated.    Also  note  any  other  peculiar  conditions. 
Consult  your  textbooks  to  find  the  causes  which  are 
likely  to  produce  the  results  mentioned,  and  state 
your  opinion  of  the  soundness  of  the  cements 
tested. 


TESTS  OF   CEMENT  69 

PROBLEM  A7. 

Soundness  of  Cement  —  Accelerated  Test. 

1 08.  Object.    The  purpose  of  this  test  is  the 
same  as  that  of  Problem  A6,  but  the  activity  of  the 
chemical  changes  taking  place  within  the  cement 
while  hardening  is  accelerated  by  the  application 
of  heat. 

109.  Apparatus    Required.     Closed    vessel    ar- 
ranged to  boil  water,  provided  with  one  rack  sup- 
ported in  the  water  upon  which  to  place  specimens 
for  the  boiling  test,  and  one  rack  above  the  water 
level  on  which  to  place  specimens  to  be  subjected 
to  steam  bath;  also  the  apparatus  required  for 
Problem  6. 

no.  Materials  Required.  500  grams  of  each 
assigned  cement,  and  water  for  mixing. 

in.  Method  of  Operation.  Make  and  mark 
four  pats  of  each  assigned  cement,  following  the 
instructions  for  Problem  A6.  Place  all  of  the 
pats  in  the  moist  chamber,  and  allow  them  to 
remain  there  until  the  boiling  and  steam  tests  are 
made,  which  should  be  at  the  end  of  twenty-four 
hours,  but  which  may  have  to  be  deferred  until 
the  next  laboratory  period.  (The  time  at  which  the 
problem  is  to  be  completed  is  indicated  upon  the 
assignment  sheet.)  To  complete  the  test,  place 
enough  water  in  the  boiler  to  bring  the  surface 
midway  between  the  two  racks.  Place  two  pats 


70  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

of  each  cement  in  the  water,  and  two  pats  of  each 
cement  on  the  rack  above  the  water.  Place  the 
cover  upon  the  boiler,  and  apply  heat  so  as  to  raise 
the  temperature  of  the  water  to  the  boiling-point 
in  about  thirty  minutes.  Continue  the  boiling 
until  the  end  of  the  laboratory  period,  provided 
the  period  of  boiling  does  not  exceed  three  hours. 
Do  not  remove  the  specimens  from  the  boiler 
within  an  hour  after  the  application  of  heat  is 
discontinued.  When  the  pats  are  removed, 
examine  them  carefully  for  indications  of  un- 
soundness. 

112.  Report.  In  reporting  this  problem  follow 
the  instructions  given  for  Problem  A6 ;  and  if  Prob- 
lem A6  has  been  completed,  compare  the  results  of 
the  two  problems. 


TESTS  OF  CEMENT  71 

PROBLEM  A8. 

Time  of  Setting  of  Cement. 

113.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the   time   required   for  the 
assigned  samples  of  cement  to  acquire  their  initial 
set  and  their  final  set. 

114.  Apparatus  Required.    Trowel,  pan,  beaker, 
graduated  cylinder,  Vicat  apparatus  with  needle, 
two  vulcanite  rings,  set  of  Gillmore  wires,  ther- 
mometer, sandglass,  six  plates  of  glass  about  three 
inches  by  three  inches,  moist  chamber,  and  pan  of 
water. 

115.  Materials  Required.     600  grams  of  each 
assigned  cement,  and  water  for  mixing. 

116.  Method  of  Operation.   Weigh  out  600  grams 
of  cement,  and  mix  into  a  plastic  paste,  using  the 
per  cent  of  water  obtained  in  Problem  A5  by  the 
method  recommended  by  the  American  Society  of 
Civil  Engineers.     Use  water  having  a  temperature 
about  that  of  the  air,  and  record  its  temperature. 
Fill  one  of  the  rings  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
determining  the  per   cent   of  water.     Form  the 
remainder  of  the  paste  into  three  pats.     Place  one 
of  the  pats  in  the  moist  chamber,  one  in  water,  and 
allow  one  to  harden  in  air.     Note  the  temperature 
of  the  air. 

117.  In  the  same  manner  as  above  described, 
make  a  plastic  paste  of  the  other  assigned  cement, 


72  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

fill  the  second  vulcanite  ring,  and  make  three  pats. 
Allow  these  specimens  to  harden  under  the  same 
conditions  as  the  first  set. 

1 18.  Examine  each  specimen  at  intervals  of,  say, 
ten  minutes  to  see  when  setting  begins  and  when 
it  is  completed.     Mix  the  cement  promptly  at  the 
beginning  of  the  laboratory  period  to  allow  as  much 
time  as  possible  for  setting  during  the  period. 

119.  The  Gillmore  wires  are  used  with  the  pats. 
When  the  light  wire  is  just  supported  upon  the 
surface  the  initial  set  is  said  to  have  occurred,  and 
when  the  heavy  wire  is  supported  the  final  set  is 
said  to  have  occurred.     Note  the  mark  made  by 
the  thumb  nail  at  the  time  of  the  initial  set  and  of 
the  final  set. 

120.  The  Vicat  apparatus  is  used  with  the  rings. 
To  test  one  of  the  specimens,  bring  the  needle  to 
the  surface  of  the  paste  and  release  it  suddenly. 
The  initial  set  is  said  to  have  occurred  when  the 
needle  ceases  to  pass  a  point  five  millimeters  above 
the  bottom  of  the  ring.     The  final  set  is  said  to 
have  occurred  when  the  needle  ceases  to  penetrate 
the  surface.     (Note  that  the  Vicat  apparatus  is 
used  only  with  the  rings,  and  that  the  Gillmore 
wires  are   used   only  with   the   pats.     The   two 
methods  of  determining  the  points  at  which  the 
initial  and  final  sets  occur  are  arbitrary,  and  hence 
the  results  by  the  two  methods  need  not  agree.) 
In  using  the  Vicat  apparatus  keep  the  needle  clean 
and  see  that  the  slide  works  freely. 


TESTS   OF   CEMENT  73 

121.  Report.  In  reporting  this  problem  com- 
pare the  results  by  the  two  methods,  state  condi- 
tions affecting  the  rate  of  setting  in  each  case,  and 
state  what  errors  are  likely  to  occur. 


74  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

PROBLEM  Ag. 

Tensile  Strength  of  Neat  Cement  —  Variation  with 
Age. 

122.  Object.    The  purpose  of  this  test  is  to  deter- 
mine the  strength  acquired  by  neat  briquettes  of 
the  assigned  cements  in  seven  days  and  in  twenty- 
eight  days,  and  to  determine  the  increase  in  strength 
during  these  periods. 

123.  Apparatus  Required.     Trowel,  pan,  beaker, 
graduated  cylinder,  No.  20  sieve,  sandglass,  ther- 
mometer,  individual  or  gang   molds   for   twenty 
briquettes,  and  coarse  balance  with  set  of  weights. 

124.  Materials  Required.     1500  grams  of  each 
assigned  cement,  and  water  for  mixing. 

125.  Method  of  Operation.     If  the  molds  are  not 
already  cleaned  and  oiled,  clean  them  by  scraping 
off  as  much  mortar  as  possible  with  a  trowel  and 
by  removing  the  remainder  with  a  wire  brush. 
Then  oil  the  molds  with  an  oily  rag,  and  also  oil 
the  top  of  the  mixing  table  where  the  molds  are  to 
be  placed.     Be  careful  to  oil  the  entire  surface  of 
the  molds,  particularly  where  they  come  in  contact 
with  the  briquettes,  but  be  careful  not  to  use  an 
excess  of  oil,  since  it  may  be  injurious  to  the 
strength  of  the  cement. 

126.  Screen  the  cement  to  remove  the  lumps,  and 
then  weigh  out  1500  grams.     Mix  the  cement  into  a 
paste,  using  the  per  cent  of  water  which  was  deter- 


TESTS   OF   CEMENT  75 

mined  in  Problem  5  to  produce  the  consistency 
recommended  by  the  American  Society  of  Civil 
Engineers.  Record  the  per  cent  of  water,  the  tem- 
perature of  the  water,  and  the  temperature  of  the 
air.  (The  temperature  of  the  water  and  of  the  air 
should  be  about  70°  F.  or  21°  C.)  Mold  ten  bri- 
quettes of  the  paste,  using  the  method  recommended 
by  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  which 
is  given  in  Appendix  I.  Note  the  interval  elaps- 
ing from  the  time  of  adding  water  until  the  last 
briquette  is  molded.  In  like  manner  mix  the  other 
cement  and  mold  ten  more  briquettes.  Mark  each 
briquette  with  the  number  of  the  cement  and  with 
your  own  number.  Do  not  stamp  the  briquette 
near  the  breaking  section. 

127.  Cover  all  of  the  briquettes  with  a  damp 
cloth,  and  then  turn  a  large  pan  upside  down  over 
them  to  keep  them  from  drying  out.     (If  a  moist 
chamber  is  provided  for  the  purpose,  place  the 
molds  in  the  moist  chamber  instead  of  covering 
as  directed.)     At  the  end  of  twenty-four  hours 
the  briquettes  will  be  removed  from  the  molds  and 
placed  in  water  in  the  storage  tanks. 

128.  By  means  of  a  testing  machine  determine 
the  tensile  strength  of  five  briquettes  of  each  cement 
at  the  age  of  seven  days,  and  of  the  remaining 
briquettes  at  twenty-eight  days.     If  a  shot  machine 
is  used,  time  the  rate  of  flow  for  half  a  minute.     If 
necessary  adjust  the  rate  of  flow  so  that  the  force 
will  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  600  pounds  per  min- 


76  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

ute.  Be  careful  to  center  each  briquette  properly 
in  the  grips,  and  see  that  the  bearing  surfaces  of 
the  grips  are  free  from  dirt  and  sand. 

129.  Report.     In  the  report  for  this  problem 
tabulate  the  results,  giving  the  per  cent  of  water  for 
each  mixture,  the  time  required  for  molding  each 
set,  the  temperature  of  the  water  and  the  air,  the 
brand  of  cement  used,  the  age  of  each  briquette 
when  broken,  the  rate  of  application  of  the  break- 
ing load,  the  tensile  strength  of  each  briquette, 
the  mean  for  each  age,  and  the  probable  error  for 
each  mean  as  determined  by  the  formula  Em  = 

I      2^2 
o.6745\/— -7—    —T,  in  which  Em  is  the  probable 

v  n  (n  —  ij 

error,  d  is  the  difference  between  any  result  and 
the  mean  for  the  set  to  which  it  belongs,  and  n  is 
the  number  of  briquettes  whose  results  are  used 
in  computing  the  mean.  (Note  that  Em  is  in  the 
same  units  as  the  results,  and  is  not  per  cent  of 
error.) 

130.  Plot  the  results  of  the  mean  for  each  age 
upon  coordinate  paper,  and  connect  the  points  by  a 
broken  line.     Use  the  ages  at  which  the  briquettes 
were  broken  as  abscissas,  and  the  breaking  strengths 
as  ordinates.     Also  compare  the  results  with  the 
specifications  in  Appendix  II. 


TESTS   OF   CEMENT  77 

PROBLEM  Aio. 

Tensile  Strength  0/1:3  Mortar  —  Variation  with 
Age. 

131.  Object.     The  purpose  of  this  test  is  to 
determine  the  strength  acquired  by  briquettes  of 
1:3  mortar  made  with  the  assigned  cements,  in 
seven  days  and  in  twenty-eight  days,  and  to  deter- 
mine the  increase  in  strength  during  these  periods. 

132.  Apparatus  Required.    All  of  the  apparatus 
required  for  Problem  Ag. 

133.  Materials  Required.     400  grams  of  each 
assigned  cement,  2400  grams  of  sand,  and  water  for 
mixing. 

134.  Method  of  Operation.     Prepare  the  molds 
as  directed  in  Problem  Ag.      Screen  the  cement 
through  the  No.  20  sieve,  and  weigh  out  400  grams. 
Also  weigh  out  1200  grams  of   sand.      Mix   the 
cement  and  sand  together  dry,  form  a  crater  at 
the  center  of  the  pile,  and  pour  into  the  crater 
the  amount  of  water  indicated  by  the  table  in 
Appendix   I.     Then   mix  into   a   mortar   in   the 
manner  directed  in  Appendix  I.     From  this  mortar 
make  and  mark  ten  briquettes,  following  the  direc- 
tions for  Problem  Ag.      In  like  manner  make  and 
mark   ten   briquettes,    using   the   other   assigned 
cement.     Store  and  test  the  specimens  as  directed 
in  Problem  Ag. 

135.  Report.     In  the  report  for  this  problem 
follow  the  instructions  given  in  Problem  Ag. 


78  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 


PROBLEM  An. 

Variation  in  Tensile  Strength  of  Neat  Cement  with 
Amount  of  Water. 

136.  Object.    The  purpose  of  this  test  is  to 
determine   the   effect   which   a   variation   in   the 
amount  of  water  used  in  gauging  the  cement  will 
produce  upon  the  strength  of  the  cement. 

137.  Apparatus  Required.     Trowel,  pan,  beaker, 
graduated  cylinder,  individual  or  gang  molds  for 
sixteen  briquettes,  No.   20  sieve,  sandglass,  ther- 
mometer, and  coarse  balance  with  set  of  weights. 

138.  Materials  Required.     2400  grams  of  the 
assigned  cement  and  water  for  mixing. 

139.  Method  of  Operation.     Prepare  all  of  the 
molds  as  directed  in  Problem  Ag.     Screen  all  of 
the  cement  through  the  No.  20  sieve  and  weigh  out 
600  grams.     Mix  the  cement  into  a  plastic  paste, 
using  the  per  cent  of  water  which  was  determined 
in  Problem  A5  to  be  required  for  the  consistency 
recommended  by  the  American  Society  of  Civil 
Engineers.     Record  the  per  cent  of  water,  and  the 
temperature  of  the  water  and  of  the  air.     (The 
temperature   should   be   about   70°  F.   or    21°  C.) 
Mold  four  briquettes  of  the  paste,  using  the  method 
given  in  Appendix  I.     Record  the  interval  elapsing 
from  the  time  of  adding  water  until  the  last  bri- 
quette is  molded.     Mark  each  briquette  with  your 


TESTS  OF   CEMENT  79 

own  number,  and  with  the  letter  P  to  indicate  that 
it  was  made  with  plastic  paste. 

140.  Next  weigh  out  600  grams  of  the  screened 
cement  and  mix  it  with  water,  using  three  per  cent 
less  water  than  was  required  for  the  plastic  paste. 
Mold  four  briquettes  from  this  paste,  using  the 
same  method  as  was  used  for  the  first  set.     Mark 
the  briquettes  with  your  number,  and  with  the 
letter  D  to  indicate  that  they  were  made  with  a 
dry  paste. 

141.  In  like  manner  make  four  briquettes,  using 
six  per  cent  less  water  than  was  used  for  the  plastic 
paste.     Mark  these  briquettes  with  your  number, 
and  with  the  letters  VD  to  indicate  that  they  were 
made  with  very  dry  paste. 

142.  In  like  manner  make  four  briquettes,  using 
three  per  cent  more  water  than  was  used  for  the 
plastic  paste.     Mark  these  briquettes  with  your 
number,  and  with  the  letter  W  to  indicate  that  they 
were  made  with  a  wet  paste. 

143.  Store  the  briquettes  as  described  in  para- 
graph 127,  page  75. 

144.  When  the  briquettes  are  seven  days  old,  or 
at  the  next  laboratory  period,  remove  them  from 
the  storage  tank,  and  determine  the  tensile  strength 
of  each  briquette  by  means  of  a  testing  machine. 
Observe  the  precautions  given  in  paragraph  128, 
page  75- 

145.  Report.     In  the  report  for  this  problem 
tabulate  the  results,  giving  the  per  cent  of  water  for 


80  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

each  mixture,  the  time  required  for  molding  each 
set  of  briquettes,  the  temperature  of  the  water  and 
of  the  air,  the  brand  of  cement,  the  age  at  which 
the  briquettes  were  broken,  the  rate  of  application 
of  the  breaking  load,  the  tensile  strength  of  each 
briquette,  the  mean  tensile  strength  for  each  set  of 
briquettes,  and  the  probable  error*  of  the  mean 
of  each  set. 

146.  Plot  the  results  of  the  mean  for  each  set  of 
observations  upon  coordinate  paper,  and  connect 
the  points  by  a  series  of  broken  lines.     Use  per- 
centages   of    water    for    abscissas,    and    breaking 
strengths  for  ordinates. 

147.  In  conclusion  state  what  is  shown  by  your 
results  concerning  the  effect  of  the  amount  of  water 
upon  the  tensile  strength. 

*  For  formula  for  probable  error,  see  paragraph  129,  p.  76. 


TESTS  OF  CEMENT  8 1 

PROBLEM  Ai2. 

Tensile  Strength  of  1:3  Mortar  —  Effect  of  Different 
Methods  of  Molding. 

148.  Object.     The  purpose  of  this  experiment 
is  to  determine  the  effect  of  different  methods  of 
molding  upon  the  tensile  strength  of  i :  3  mortar. 

149.  Apparatus  Required.     Trowel,  pan,  beaker, 
graduated   cylinder,   individual  molds   for   twelve 
briquettes,  No.  20  sieve,  sandglass,  thermometer, 
coarse  balance  with  set  of  weights,  Olsen  briquette 
molding  machine,  and  Bohme  hammer. 

150.  Materials    Required.     500    grams    of    the 
assigned  cement,  1500  grams  of  sand  (be  careful 
to  use  the  sand  which  is  assigned),  and  water  for 
mixing. 

151.  Method  of  Operation.     If  the  molds  are 
not  ready  for  use,  clean  and  oil  them  as  described  in 
Problem  AQ.     Also  oil  the  table  under  the  molds. 
Screen  the  cement  through  the  No.  20  sieve  to  re- 
move the  lumps.     Weigh  out  500  grams  of  cement 
and  1500  grams  of  sand,  and  mix  them  together  dry. 
Form  a  crater  at  the  center  of  the  pile,  into  which 
pour  the  amount  of  water  required  for  the  proper 
percentage  as  shown  in  the  table  on  page  184. 
Complete  the  mixing  by  the  method  of  the  Ameri- 
can Society  of  Civil  Engineers  as  explained  in  Prob- 
lem A5.     Mold  four  briquettes  by  hand,  four  with 
the  Olsen  press,  and  four  with  the  Bohme  hammer. 


82  MATERIALS  TESTING   MANUAL 

For  each  machine-made  briquette  weigh  out  175 
grams  of  mortar.  Mold  the  briquette  promptly 
after  mixing,  and  keep  the  mortar  covered  with  a 
damp  cloth  while  molding  the  briquettes. 

152.  Record  the  per  cent  of  water  used,  the 
temperature  of  the  water  and  of  the  air,  and  the 
interval  from  the  time  of  adding  the  water  until 
beginning  to  mold  the  first  briquette,  and  until  the 
completion  of  molding  the  last  briquette. 

153.  Mark  the  briquettes,  using  your  own  num- 
ber and  the  letters  H,  O,  and  B  for  hand-made 
briquettes,  Olsen-press  briquettes,  and  Bohme-ham- 
mer  briquettes,  respectively.     Store  the  briquettes 
as  directed  in  Problem  Ag,  and  break  them  at  the 
age  of  seven  days  or  at  the  next  laboratory  period. 

154.  Report.     In   the  report  for   this  problem 
tabulate  the  results,  giving  all  of  the  observed  data 
and  results.     State   the  tensile  strength  of  each 
briquette,  the  mean  for  each  set,  and  the  probable 
error*  for  each  mean.     Compare  the  strength  of 
these  briquettes   with   the   strength   of  the  neat 
cement  briquettes  made  from  the  same  brand  of 
cement  in  Problem  Ag.     Also  compare  the  results 
of  this  problem  with  the  specifications  given  in 
Appendix  II. 

*  For  formula  for  probable  error,  see  paragraph  129,  p.  76. 


TESTS  OF   CEMENT  83 

PROBLEM  Ai3. 

Comparison  of  Different  Methods  of  Hand  Molding. 

155.  Object.     The  object  of  this  experiment  is 
to  determine  the  effect  of   different  methods  of 
molding  upon  the  tensile  strength  of  neat  cement. 

156.  Apparatus  Required.     Trowel,  pan,  beaker, 
graduated  cylinder,  individual  or  gang  molds  for 
sixteen  briquettes,  No.   20  sieve,  sandglass,  ther- 
mometer, and  coarse  balance  with  set  of  weights. 

157.  Materials  Required.     3000  grams  of  the 
assigned  cement,  and  water  for  mixing. 

158.  Method  of  Operation.     If  the  molds  are 
not  ready  for  use,  clean  and  oil  them  as  directed 
in  Problem  Ag.     Weigh  out  1500  grams  of  screened 
cement  and  mix  into  a  paste,  using  three  per  cent 
less  water  than  was  required  for  the  plastic  paste  in 
Problem  AS  by  the  method  of  the  American  Society 
of  Civil  Engineers.     Make  five  briquettes  in  each 
of  the  following  ways:   (i)    by  entirely  filling  the 
molds,  pressing  the  mortar  into  place  with  the 
thumbs,  and  troweling  the  surface ;  (2)    by  partially 
filling  the  mold  and  pressing  the  paste  into  place 
after  the  addition  of  each  increment;  (3)   by  par- 
tially filling  the  mold  and  ramming  each  increment 
with  an  oak  rammer  having  a  cross  section  of  about 
three-fourths  inch  by  three-fourths  inch,  and  having 
a  length  of  twelve  inches;  (4)  by  using  a  half -inch 
round  iron  or  brass  rammer,  about  twelve  inches 


84  MATERIALS   TESTING  MANUAL 

long.  (In  using  a  rammer,  the  compression  should 
be  produced  by  the  blow  of  rod,  and  not  by  pushing 
the  rammer  into  the  paste.)  Be  careful  to  avoid 
injuring  the  edges  of  the  molds. 

159.  Mark  each  briquette  with  your  number, 
and  in  addition  mark  the  first  five  with  i,  the 
second  five  with  2,  etc.     Store  the  briquettes  as 
directed  in  Problem  Ag,  and  break  at  the  age  of 
seven  days  or  at  the  next  laboratory  period. 

160.  Record  the  per  cent  of  water  used,  the 
temperature  of  the  water  and  of  the  air,  the  time 
from  adding  the  water  until  beginning  to  mold 
the  first  briquette,   and  until  the  completion  of 
molding  the  last  briquette  for  each  mixture. 

161.  Report.     In  the  report  for  this  problem 
tabulate  the  results,   giving  all  of  the  observed 
data.     State  the  tensile  strength  of  each  briquette, 
the  mean  for  each  set,  and  the  probable  error  *  for 
each  mean. 

*  For  formula  for  probable  error,  see  paragraph  129,  p.  76. 


TESTS  OF  CEMENT  85 

PROBLEM  Ai4. 

Compressive  Strength  of  Cement  and  Cement  Mortar. 

162.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  compressive  strength  of 
the  assigned  cements. 

163.  Apparatus  Required.     Trowel,  pan,  beaker, 
graduated  cylinder,  No.  20  sieve,  sandglass,  ther- 
mometer, six  molds  for  one-inch  cubes,  six  molds 
for  two-inch  cubes,  and  coarse  balance  with  set  of 
weights. 

164.  Materials  Required.     1000  grams  of  the 
assigned  cement,  1200  grams  of  sand,  and  water 
for  mixing. 

165.  Method  of  Operation.     If  the  molds  are 
not  ready  for  use,  clean  and  oil  them  as  directed  in 
Problem  AQ.     Weigh  out  600  grams  of  cement  and 
mix  into  a  paste,  using  the  per  cent  of  water 
determined  in  Problem  A5  by  the  method  of  the 
American   Society  of   Civil   Engineers.     Fill   the 
one-inch  molds  with  the  paste. 

166.  Weigh  out  400  grams  of  cement  and  1200 
grams  of  sand,  and  mix  into  a  mortar  as  directed 
in  Appendix  I.     Fill  the  two-inch  molds,  pressing 
the  mortar  into  the  molds  with  the  thumbs. 

167.  Mark    all    of    the    specimens    with    your 
number,  and  store  them  as  directed  in  Problem  AQ. 
Break  three  of  the  small  cubes  and  three  of  the  large 


86  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

cubes  at  the  end  of  one  week,  and  the  others  at 
the  end  of  four  weeks. 

1 68.  Report.  In  the  report  for  this  problem 
tabulate  the  data  and  the  results,  giving  the  strength 
of  each  specimen,  the  mean  of  each  set  for  each 
age,  and  the  probable  error  *  of  each  mean.  Com- 
pare the  compressive  strength  with  the  tensile 
strength  obtained  in  previous  problems. 

*  For  formula  for  probable  error,  see  paragraph  129,  p.  76. 


CHAPTER   IV. 
TESTS   OF   CONCRETE. 


PROBLEM  Bi. 

Preparation  of  Specimens. 

169.  Object.     This  assignment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preparing  specimens  to  be  used,  for  sub- 
sequent problems,  in  determining  the  compressive 
strength,  the  shearing  strength,  the  flexural  strength, 
and  the  modulus  of  elasticity  of  concrete. 

170.  Apparatus  Required.  A  sufficient  number  of 
molds  for  six-inch  cubes  to  make  three  cubes  of  each 
mixture  for  each  age  at  which  tests  are  to  be  made;  a 
sufficient  number  of  molds  for  eight-inch  cylindrical 
or  six-inch  square  prisms,  eighteen  inches  long,  to 
prepare  one  prism  for  each  age;  a  sufficient  number 
of  molds  for  shear  specimens  *  to  prepare  three  speci- 
mens of  each  mixture  for  each  age;  a  sufficient 
number  of  molds  for  bond  specimens  to  prepare 
three  specimens  with  each  kind  of  reinforcement 
for  each  age,  for  pulling  out  tests,  and  an  equal 
number  for  bond  tests  with  beam  specimens  ;f  a 

*  For  description  of  molds  see  page  94. 
t  For  a  description  of  specimens  for  bond  tests  see  page  97. 
For  the  pulling-out  test  the  specimens  may  be  made  in  molds  for 

87 


88  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

number  of  molds  for  beams*  and  for  columns  to 
prepare  as  many  specimens  of  each  as  desired;  a 
mixing  platform;  shovels,  trowels,  and  a  measuring 
box  for  sand  and  one  for  stone.f 

171.  Materials  Required.     Cement,  sand  or  fine 
gravel,  crushed  rock  which  will  pass  a  i-inch  ring, 
water,  building  paper,  two  lo-inch  rings  of  J-inch 
square  reinforcing  steel  with  ends  lapping  6  inches 
for   each    reinforced   shear    specimen,    reinforcing 
bars  for  concrete  beams,  and  reinforcing  bars  and 
hoops  for  concrete  columns. 

172.  Method  of  Operation.     See  that  the  molds 
to  be  used  are  clean.     If  the  molds  are  in  pieces 
put  them  together,  and  place  all  molds  which  are 
without  bottoms  on  a  reasonably  smooth  floor, 
with  a  layer  of  building  paper  under  the  molds. 
The  molds  should  be  placed  in  such  positions  that 
they  will  not  have  to  be  disturbed  until  the  concrete 
has  set.    Near  the  end  of  each  mold  for  beams, 
attach  a  small  wooden  block  to  the  side  of  the 
mold  in  such  a  position  that  it  will  be  cast  in  the 
beam  at  the  center  of  the  depth  and  exactly  over 
the  point  at  which  the  support  is  to  be  placed  when 
the  beam  is  tested. 

either  cubes,  prisms,  or  cylinders,  provided  the  length  of  steel 
embedded  is  at  least  six  inches  and  preferably  not  over  twelve 
inches.  For  beam  specimens  for  bond  tests  ordinary  beam  molds 
can  be  used  by  inserting  a  board  partition  at  the  middle  of  the 
beam,  allowing  the  steel  to  pass  through  the  board. 

*  See  page  23. 

t  If  the  ratio  of  stone  to  sand  to  be  used  is  an  integer  only  one 
measuring  box  will  be  required. 


TESTS  OF   CONCRETE  89 

173.  Place  the  measuring  box  upon  the  platform 
and  fill  it  level  full  with  sand  or  fine  gravel.     If  a 
large  batch  of  concrete  is  required,  move  the  measur- 
ing box  and  refill  it  with  sand.     When  a  sufficient 
amount  of  sand  has  been  thus  deposited  upon  the 
platform,  level  the  top  of  the  pile  and  place  upon 
the  sand  the  required  quantity  of  cement.*     Mix 
the  cement  and  sand  together  dry.    Level  the  top 
of  the  pile  and  place  upon  it  the  required  amount 
of  stone.     In  order  that  the  measurement  of  the 
stone  may  be  carefully  made  it  is  better  to  place 
the  measuring  box  on  the  platform,  beside  the  sand 
and  cement,  instead  of  placing  it  on  top  of  the  pile. 
After  placing  the  stone  upon  the  sand  and  cement, 
turn  the  mixture  dry  at  least  twice,  and  then  while 
adding  water  turn  the  concrete  a  sufficient  number 
of  times  to  produce  a  uniform  mixture.     If  so 
instructed,  measure  the  quantity  of  water  used. 

174.  After  the   concrete  has  been   thoroughly 
mixed  fill  all  of  the  molds  which  are  to  be  used  for 
that  mixture,  puddling  the   concrete  with  a  stick 
or  rod.     Insert  steel  for  reinforcement  as  directed. 
In  finishing  the  top  surfaces  of  the  specimens  see 
that  the  concrete  is  left  smooth,  but  do  not  trowel 
the  top  unless  so  instructed.     Mark  upon  each 
specimen  the  squad  number  or  letter,  the  consecu- 

*  If  enough  specimens  are  to  be  molded  to  require  the  use  of 
one  or  more  sacks  of  cement,  it  will  be  convenient  to  use  a  measur- 
ing box  of  the  proper  size  to  require  one  sack  of  cement  to  one  box 
of  sand.  One  sack  of  cement  may  usually  be  taken  as  one  cubic 
foot.  This  is  not  exact  but  corresponds  well  with  practice. 


QO  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

tive  number  of  the  batch,  and  with  the  year,  e.g., 
B — 8 — 1 1  would  signify  that  the  specimen  was  one 
of  batch  number  8,  made  by  squad  B  in  1911.  If 
specimens  are  made  using  different  kinds  and 
amounts  of  reinforcement,  the  batch  number  can 
be  modified,  e.g.,  Sa  might  refer  to  one  type  of  the 
specimens  made  from  batch  number  8. 

175.  After  the  concrete  has  set  for  at  least  two 
days  the  molds  can  be  removed,  and  the  specimens 
can  be  placed  in  suitable  places  for  storage.     If  the 
specimens  are  to  be  stored  in  air  the  concrete 
should  be  flooded  with  water  every  day  for  one 
week  after  being  molded. 

176.  Report.     Tabulate  the  data  obtained,  stat- 
ing the  brand  of  cement  used,  the  character  and 
size  of  the  sand  or  gravel  and  of  the  stone,  the 
proportions  of  the  ingredients  in  the  concrete,  the 
character  of  the  mixture,  the  kind  and  amount  of 
steel   placed   in   each   specimen,    the   number   of 
specimens  of  each   kind,   the  markings  on  each 
specimen,  the  date  at  which  each  specimen  is  to  be 
tested,  and  the  place  and  method  of  storage  for 
each  specimen. 


TESTS   OF  CONCRETE  91 

PROBLEM  B2. 

Compression  Test  of  Concrete. 

177.  Object.     This  test  is  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  the  crushing  strength  of  concrete. 

178.  Apparatus  Required.     A  ioo,ooo-pound  or 
200,ooo-pound  testing  machine,  equipped  with  a 
compression  head;  and  a  measuring  scale  or  rule. 

179.  Materials  Required.      Three   6-inch    con- 
crete cubes  for  each  mixture  to  be  tested,  building 
paper,  and  plaster  of  Paris. 

180.  Method  of  Operation.     Place  a  piece  of 
building  paper  upon  the  table  of  the  testing  machine. 
Coat  one  face  of  the  first  cube  to  be  tested  with 
plaster  of  Paris,  and  place  the  cube  in  the  machine 
with  the  coated  face  down.     Coat  the  top  face  with 
plaster  of  Paris  and  place  a  piece  of  building  paper 
between  the  cube  and  compression  head  of  the 
machine.     Run  the  compression  head  down  until 
it  is  in  contact  with  the  cube  and  apply  a  load  of 
not  more  than  5000  pounds.     Allow  this  load  to 
remain  for  a  few  minutes  while  the  plaster  of  Paris 
is  setting.*    Then  apply  the  load  using  the  slow 
motion.     Record  the  maximum  load,  the  charac- 
ter of  failure,  and  any  other  observations  of  inter- 
est or  importance.     Test  each  cube  in  a  similar 
manner. 

*  In  case  no  plaster  of  Paris  is  available  fair  results  may  be 
obtained  by  using  two  or  three  layers  of  building  paper  above  and 
below  the  cube. 


92  MATERIALS   TESTING  MANUAL 

181.  Report.  Tabulate  the  results  giving  all  of 
the  data,  for  the  specimens  tested,  which  were 
obtained  at  the  time  the  concrete  was  made,  and  in 
addition  tabulate  the  results  of  the  test,  stating  the 
dimensions,  the  bearing  area,  the  total  maximum 
load,  and  the  unit-crushing  strength  of  each  speci- 
men, the  average  strength  for  each  mixture,  and 
the  probable  error  of  each  mean.*  Compare  your 
results  with  the  values  of  crushing  strength  given 
in  the  textbooks,  reporting  the  values  found  and 
the  authority. 

*  See  page  76  for  formula  for  probable  error. 


TESTS   OF  CONCRETE  93 

PROBLEM  63. 

Shearing  Test  of  Concrete. 

182.  Object.    This  experiment  is  for  the  purpose 
of  determining  the  shearing  strength  of  concrete. 

183.  Discussion.     A    considerable    number    of 
forms  of  specimens  have  been  used  for  the  purpose 
of  making  shear  tests  of  concrete,  but  some  ob- 
jection can  be  found  to  all  of  which  the  writer  has 
knowledge.     The  practical  necessity  of  using  a  spec- 
imen of  considerable  thickness  makes  it  almost 
impossible  to  avoid  a  slight  uncertainty  in  the  re- 
sults on  account  of  other  stresses  which  are  pro- 
duced, in  addition  to  the  shearing  stresses.     Two 
common  forms  of  specimens  which  have  been  used 
are  (a)  short  beams  and  (b)  plates  for  punching 
tests.*    The  forms  of  specimens  used  for  punching 
tests  by  Professor  A.  N.  Talbot,  of  the  University  of 
Illinois,  are  shown  in  Fig.  49.     The  form  of  test 
piece  used  by  the  author  consists  of  a  flat  plate 
12  inches  square  by  3  inches  in  thickness  with  eight 
holes,  f-inch  diameter,  arranged  along  the  circum- 
ference of  a  5-inch  circle.     These  test  pieces  can 
be  made  either  with  or  without  steel  reinforcement 
outside  of  the  circle  of  holes.     The  test  piece  with- 
out reinforcement  is  shown  in  Fig.  50. 

*  For  the  results  obtained  with  different  forms  of  specimens 
see  Bulletin  No.  8  of  the  University  of  Illinois  Engineering 
Experiment  Station. 


94 


MATERIALS   TESTING   MANUAL 


__^_ 


PLAN 


PLAN 


—    -— i-'-i'-i  — 
ELEVATION 
(a) 


-  -  -  -T  -  -  -  > 
ELEVATION 


/: 


PLAN 


PLAN 


ELEVATION 
(C) 


K-  -3->j<- 7  -  -  -  ^K-  3- ->j 

'  ELEVATION 
(d) 


Fig.  49.  —Forms  of  Shear  Test  Piece  used  by  Professor  A.  N.  Talbot. 
(a)  Plate,     (b)  Recessed  Block,     (c)  and  W)  Reinforced  Recessed  Blocks 

184.  The  forms  required  for  specimens  similar  to 
that  shown  in  Fig.  50  consist  of  a  bottom  board 
2  inches  in  thickness,  with  holes  in  which  to  insert 
the  pins  which  form  the  holes  in  the  test  piece,  and 
four  side  pieces  connected  by  the  use  of  three 


TESTS   OF  CONCRETE  95 

hinges  and  one  hinge  hasp.  The  pins  are  allowed 
to  soak  in  water  over  night,  before  using,  so  that 
when  the  concrete  has  hardened  the  pins  can  be 
easily  removed  from  the  speci- 
men. 

185.   Apparatus  Required.    A 


J 


ioo,ooo-pound  testing  machine 
equipped  with  compression  head, 
an  oak  or  iron  bearing  block 
with  a  hole  6  inches  in  diam- 
eter, a  cylindrical  iron  block  5 
--£-  inches  in  diameter,  to  be 
£  used  as  a  punch,  and  a  rule 

Fig.  50.  —  Concrete  Specimen     Or  measuring  Scale. 

for  Shearing  Test  ^      Materials    Required. 

Three  specimens  for  each  mixture  to  be  tested, 
building  paper,  some  plaster  of  Paris. 

187.  Method  of  Operation.*  Cut  pieces  of 
building  paper  1 2  inches  square,  and  from  the  center 
of  each  piece  cut  a  circular  piece  6  inches  in  diam- 
eter. Trim  each  circular  piece  to  a  diameter  of  5 
inches.  Place  the  bearing  block  upon  the  table  of  the 
testing  machine  and  place  upon  it  one  of  the  large 
pieces  of  paper.  Place  one  specimen  in  position 
on  the  paper,  embedding  it  in  plaster  of  Paris,  and 
place  one  of  the  circular  pieces  of  paper  upon  the 
top  of  the  central  portion  of  the  specimen  with  a 
layer  of  plaster  of  Paris  between  the  paper  and  the 

*  These  instructions  apply  particularly  to  tests  to  be  made 
using  perforated  test  pieces,  similar  to  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  50. 


g6  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

specimen.  On  top  of  the  paper  place  the  iron 
punching  block  and  apply  the  load,  using  the  slow- 
est speed.  Record  the  ultimate  load,  the  method 
of  failure,  and  any  other  observations  of  interest. 
Test  each  specimen  in  a  similar  manner. 

188.  Report.  Tabulate  the  results  giving  all  of 
the  data,  for  the  specimens  tested,  which  were 
obtained  when  the  concrete  was  made,  and  in  addi- 
tion give  the  dimensions,  shearing  area,  total  load, 
and  unit  shear  for  each  specimen,  the  mean  unit 
shear  for  each  mixture,  and  the  probable  error  for 
each  mean.*  Compare  your  results  with  the  values 
of  shearing  strength  given  in  the  textbooks,  report- 
ing the  values  found  and  the  authority. 

*  For  the  formula  for  probable  error  see  page  76. 


TESTS   OF   CONCRETE  97 

PROBLEM  B4. 

Test  of  Bond  of  Steel  Embedded  in  Concrete. 

189.  Object.    The  object  of  this  experiment  is  to 
determine  the  ultimate  strength  of  the  bond  exist- 
ing between  steel  and  concrete,  for  bars  embedded 
in  concrete. 

190.  Discussion.     The  first  tests  of  the  strength 
of  the  bond  between  steel  and  concrete  were  made 
by  pulling  out  steel  bars  which  were  embedded  in 
cylinders   of  concrete.*    Later  tests   which   have 
been  made,  using  beams  or  specimens  in  which  the 
conditions  of  molding  and  of  loading  were  similar  to 
those  for  bars  in  beams  and  slabs,  indicate  that  the 
first   methods   employed   give   results   which    are 
much  higher  than  can  be  expected  for  the  condi- 
tions which  would  govern  the  design  of  the  majority 
of  reinforced  concrete  structures.!     In  this  experi- 
ment both  methods  are  to  be  used,  the  method 
used  for  the  beam  specimens  being  that  described 
by  Mr.  H.  C.  Berry,  in  Vol.  IX  of  the  Proceedings 
of  the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials, 
pages  495-501. 

*  For  results  by  this  method  see  Bulletin  No.  8  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois  Engineering  Experiment  Station. 

f  For  results  of  tests  by  both  methods  see  "  Tests  of  Bond  in 
Reinforced  Concrete  Beams,"  by  Morton  O.  Withey,  Proceedings 
of  the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials,  Vol.  VIII,  pages 
469  to  479;  and  "Some  Tests  of  Bond  of  Steel  Bars  Embedded 
in  Concrete  by  Three  Methods,"  by  H.  C.  Berry,  Proceedings 
of  the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials,  Vol.  IX,  pages 
495  to  501. 


98  MATERIALS   TESTING  MANUAL 

191.  Apparatus  Required.  A  ioo,ooo-pound  test- 
ing machine  with  V-block  and  with  wings  for  sup- 
porting beams;*  two  rocker  or  roller  supports;  two 
rollers  ij  or  i|  inches  in  diameter,  to  be  placed 
on  top  of  specimens;  four  pieces  of  steel  plate,  to 
be  used  at  points  of  bearing  against  the  concrete; 
a  small  I-beam  or  piece  of  steel  rail,  2  feet  long; 
a  plate  approximately  6  inches  in  diameter,  with  a 
hole  at  the  center  to  be  used  as  a  bearing  plate  for 
the  pulling  tests;  two  steel  bars  2^  by  f  inches  and 
as  long  as  the  beam  specimens  are  wide,  with  a 
groove  in  each  milled  to  the  slope  of  a  taper  pin 
and  extending  from  each  end  toward  the  center  of 
one  face  of  each  bar;  two  taper  pins,  to  be  used 
with  the  bars  above  described  as  a  hinge;  and  a 
good  rule  for  measuring  specimens  and  locating 
bearing  points. 

192.  Materials  Required.     Three  specimens  for 
pulling  tests,  for  each  mixture  to  be  tested,  three 
beamf  specimens  for  each  mixture  of  concrete,  and 
plaster  of  Paris. 

193.  Method  of  Operation.     Remove  the  grips 
from  the  fixed  head  of  the  testing  machine,  and 
place  the  bearing  plate  in  position,  on  top  of  the 
fixed  head.     Place  the  specimen  in  position  on  the 
bearing  plate,  as  shown  in  Fig.  51,  placing  a  layer 

*  For  machines  not  equipped  with  wings,  supports  for  beams 
may  be  made  by  placing  steel  beams  or  rails  upon  the  table  of  the 
machine. 

t  Beam  specimens  should  have  each  portion  reinforced  to 
prevent  failure  by  diagonal  tension. 


TESTS   OF  CONCRETE 


99 


of  building  paper  between  the  specimen  and  the 
plate,  with  a  layer  of  plaster  of  Paris  between 
the  paper  and  the 
specimen.  Fasten  the 
rod  of  the  specimen 
in  the  grips  of  the 
movable  head,  and 
apply  a  load  of  500 
pounds.  Allow  this 
load  to  remain  for  a 
few  minutes  while  the 
plaster  of  Paris  is  set- 
ting, and  then  con- 
tinue to  apply  the  Fig.  51.— Arrangement  for  Pulling  Out 

load.    Record  the  ulti- 
mate load  and  the  method  of  failure.     Test  each 
specimen  for  the  pulling  test  in  a  similar  manner. 

194.  Remove  the  grips  from  the  movable  head 
of  the  testing  machine  and  attach  the  V-block. 
Place  one  of  the  beam  specimens  in  position,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  52.  Between  each  roller  or  rocker 
and  the  concrete,  place  a  flat  plate,  with  a  layer  of 
plaster  of  Paris  between  the  steel  and  the  concrete. 
See  that  the  points  of  bearing,  both  for  the  load 
and  for  the  supports,  are  symmetrical  with  respect 
to  the  V-block  and  to  the  point  of  division  of  the 
beam.  See  that  the  taper  pins  are  snugly  inserted 
between  their  bearing  plates.  Measure  and  record 
the  length  of  span,  the  distance  between  points  of 
loading,  and  the  distance  from  center  of  steel  to 


100  MATERIALS  TESTING   MANUAL 

center  of  bearing  pins.  Apply  the  load  slowly, 
observing  the  deflection.  If  the  deflection  be- 
comes excessive,  remove  the  load  and  tighten  the 
taper  pins.  Record  the  maximum  load  and  any 


\z 


A  A 


Fig.  52.  —  Arrangement  of  Beam  Specimen  for  Test  of  Bond 

observations  which  may  be  of  interest.     Test  the 
remaining  specimens  in  a  similar  manner. 

195.  Report.  Tabulate  the  results  giving  all 
of  the  data,  for  the  specimens  tested,  which  were 
obtained  when  the  specimens  were  made,  and  in 
addition  give  the  dimensions,  length  of  span, 
method  of  loading,  moment  arm  of  steel,  total 
load,  total  stress  on  steel  and  ultimate  bond  stress 
per  square  inch  of  surface  of  embedded  steel,  for 
each  specimen,  the  mean  unit  bond  stress  for  each 
mixture,  and  the  probable  error  for  each  mean.* 
Compare  your  results  with  the  values  of  bond 
strength  giveft  in  the  textbooks,  reporting  the 
values  found  and  the  authority. 

*  For  the  formula  for  probable  error,  see  page  76. 


TESTS   OF   CONCRETE   ;.   ;      ;  r/;^OI; 
'  j  j  ' j '  j  J> ,    J>  \ J  J  '  j j  ^  '*  j 

PROBLEM  BS. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity  of  Concrete. 

196.  Object.     The  object  of  this  experiment  is  to 
determine  the  coefficient  of  elasticity  of  concrete. 

197.  Apparatus  Required.     A  100,000  or  200,000- 
pound  testing  machine,  and  compression  microm- 
eter or  deformeter  adapted  to  the  specimens  to  be 
used. 

198.  Materials  Required.     One  or  more  8-inch 
cylindrical  or   6-inch   square   concrete   prisms   18 
inches  in  length,  building  paper,  and  plaster  of 
Paris. 

199.  Method  of  Operation.     Attach  the  deform- 
eter to  the  prism.     Coat  each  end  of  one  prism 
with  a  layer  of  plaster  of  Paris,  and  place  the  prism 
on  end  upon  the  platform  of  the  testing  machine, 
with  a  layer  of  building  paper  at  the  top  and  bottom. 
Run  the  movable  head  of  the  machine  down  until 
it  is  in  contact   with   the  specimen.      Read   the 
micrometers   and  record   the   readings.     Apply  a 
load  of  2000  pounds  and  allow  the  specimen  to 
stand  with  the  load  applied,  while  the  plaster  of 
Paris  is  setting.     Read  the  micrometers  while  the 
load  of   2000  pounds  is  applied  and  record  the 
readings.    Apply  the  load  in  increments  of  2000 
pounds,  noting  the  micrometer  readings  for  each 
increment.     Proceed  in  this  manner  until  the  load 
amounts  to  a  little  less  than  the  estimated  ultimate 


. :ip2  MATERIALS   TESTING  MANUAL 

load.  Then  remove  the  deformeter  and  continue 
the  application  of  the  load  until  the  concrete  fails, 
recording  the  maximum  load,  the  method  of  failure, 
and  any  other  observations  of  interest.  Test  each 
prism  in  a  similar  manner. 

200.  Report.  Tabulate  all  of  the  data  for  the 
specimens  tested  which  were  obtained  at  the  time 
the  specimens  were  made,  and  in  addition  tabulate 
the  data  obtained  during  the  test,  giving  the  amount 
of  each  load  for  which  readings  were  taken,  the 
readings  observed,  the  total  deformation,  the  unit 
stress,  the  unit  deformation,  the  total  maximum 
load,  the  crushing  strength,  and  the  coefficient  of 
elasticity  for  values  of  the  unit  stress  equal  to 
500  pounds  per  square  inch,  1000  pounds  per  square 
inch,  and  1500  pounds  per  square  inch.  Also 
record  the  dimensions  of  the  specimen  and  the 
length  between  contact  points.  Plot  the  stress- 
deformation  diagram  upon  coordinate  paper,  show- 
ing each  point  observed. 


TESTS   OF   CONCRETE  103 

PROBLEM  B6. 

Cross  Breaking  Test  of  Concrete  Beams. 

20 1.  Object.     The  purpose  of  this  experiment 
is  to  determine  the  flexural  strength,  stiffness,  and 
method  of  failure  of  plain  and  reinforced  concrete 
beams. 

202.  Apparatus    Required.      A     ioo,ooo-pound 
testing  machine  with  V-block  and  with  wings  for 
supporting  beams,*  rocker  or  roller  supports,  three 
pieces  of  steel  plate  to  be  used  at  bearing  points  of 
the  beam,  a  strip  of  mirrored  glass  with  a  graduated 
scale  or  rule  attached,  and  a  piece  of  thread  or  fine 
wire. 

203.  Materials  Required.     As  many  plain  and 
reinforced  concrete  beams  as  desired,   and  some 
plaster  of  Paris. 

204.  Method  of  Operation.     Set  the  rocker  or 
roller  supports  at  the  desired  distance  apart  and 
at  equal  distances  on  either  side  of  the  point  of 
application  of  the  load.     Set  one  beam  upon  the 
supports,  placing  a  steel  plate  between  each  roller 
or  rocker  and  the  concrete,  with  a  layer  of  plaster 
of  Paris  between  each  plate   and   the   concrete. 
In  like  manner  place  a  plate  upon  the  top  of  the 
beam,  at  the  point  of  bearing  of  the  V-block.     At 
the  center  of  the  side  of  the  beam  attach  the  mirror 

*  For  machines  not  equipped  with  wings,  supports  for  beam 
tests  may  be  made  by  placing  steel  beams  or  rails  upon  the  table 
of  the  machine. 


104  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

and  scale  in  a  vertical  position.  Drive  a  nail  in 
the  wooden  block  cast  in  the  side  of  the  beam  over 
each  support.  Stretch  a  thread  or  wire  from  one 
nail  to  the  other,  allowing  it  to  pass  in  front  of  the 
mirror  and  scale,  and  over  one  nail  to  a  weight. 
Stand  in  front  of  the  mirror,  bring  the  eye  to  such 
a  level  that  the  thread  and  its  image  are  in  line, 
and  note  the  reading  of  the  thread  on  the  scale. 
Balance  the  scale  beam  of  the  machine  and  run  the 
movable  head  of  the  machine  down  until  the  V- 
block  is  in  contact  with  the  steel  plate  on  top  of 
the  beam.  Apply  the  load  in  increments  of  not 
more  than  one-tenth  of  the  estimated  ultimate  load, 
recording  the  amount  of  the  load  and  the  reading 
of  scale  on  the  side  of  the  beam,  for  each  increment. 
Note  the  load  at  which  the  first  crack  appears,  the 
method  of  failure,  and  the  maximum  load.  Record 
the  length  of  span.  Test  the  remaining  beams  in 
a  similar  manner. 

205.  Report.  Tabulate  all  of  the  data,  for  the 
specimens  tested,  which  were  obtained  at  the  time 
the  specimens  were  made,  and  in  addition  tabulate 
the  data  obtained  at  the  time  of  the  test,  including 
the  amount  of  load  for  each  reading,  the  readings 
observed,  the  amount  of  deflection,  the  computed 
values  of  the  stress  in  the  concrete  and  in  the  steel. 
Also,  under  remarks  and  opposite  the  proper  load- 
ings, record  the  appearance  of  cracks  and  similar 
remarks  concerning  the  method  of  failure.  Plot  a 
curve  of  the  deflections  upon  coordinate  paper. 


TESTS   OF  CONCRETE  105 

PROBLEM  67. 

Deformation  of  Concrete  Beams. 

206.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  purpose 
of  determining  the  flexural  strength,  the  stiffness, 
the  fiber  deformation,  and  the  method  of  failure 
of  plain  and  reinforced  concrete  beams. 

207.  Apparatus  Required.    A  ioo,ooo-pound  test- 
ing machine  with  V-block  and  with  wings  for  sup- 
porting beams,  a  steel  I-beam  longer  than  one-third 
the  length  of  the  beam,  rocker  or  roller  supports, 
two  pieces  of  steel  shafting  i^  inches  in  diameter, 
four  pieces   of   steel  plate,   deformeter  similar  to 
Fig.  45  or  Fig.  46,  pages  51-52,  a  strip  of  mirrored 
glass  with  scale  or  rule  attached,  and  some  thread 
or  fine  wire. 

208.  Materials  Required.     As  many  plain  and 
reinforced  concrete  beams   as    desired   and    some 
plaster  of  Paris. 

209.  Method  of  Operation.     Set  the  supports  at 
the  desired  distance  apart  and  at  equal  distances 
on  each  side  of  the  V-block.     Place  one  beam  on 
the  supports,  with  a  steel  plate  embedded  in  plaster 
of  Paris,  between  each  plate  and  the  beam.     In  a 
similar  manner  embed  two  plates  in  plaster  of  Paris 
on  the  top  of  the  beam,  and  at  distances  from  each 
support  equal  to  one-third  of  the  length  of  span. 
Place  one  piece  of  steel  shafting  on  each  plate  and 
upon  these  rollers  place  the  I-beam  in  position,  so 


106  MATERIALS   TESTING   MANUAL 

that  the  V-block  will  bear  upon  the  center  of  the 
I-beam  and  the  latter  will  transfer  the  load  to  the 
two  points  on  the  beam.  Attach  the  frames  of 
the  deformeter  to  the  beam,  placing  each  frame  as 
near  the  points  of  loading  as  possible.  Measure 
carefully  the  distance  between  the  two  frames  and 
also  the  position  of  the  points  of  contact  of  each 
frame.  At  the  center  of  one  side  of  the  beam  attach 
the  mirror  and  scale  in  a  vertical  position.  Drive 
a  nail  in  the  wooden  block  in  the  side  of  the  beam 
over  each  support.  Stretch  a  thread  or  fine  wire 
between  the  two  nails,  allowing  it  to  pass  in  front 
of  the  mirror  and  scale  and  over  one  nail  to  a 
weight.  Stand  in  front  of  the  mirror,  bring  the 
eye  to  such  a  level  that  the  thread  and  its  image 
are  in  line,  and  note  the  reading  of  the  thread  on 
the  scale.  Balance  the  scale  beam  of  the  machine 
and  read  the  micrometers  or  dials  of  the  deformeter. 
Apply  the  load  in  increments  of  not  more  than  one- 
tenth  of  the  estimated  ultimate  load.  Record  the 
distance  between  supports,  the  position  of  the  bear- 
ing points,  the  amount  of  the  load  for  each  reading, 
the  readings  of  the  deformeter,  the  readings  of  the 
mirror  scale,  the  load  at  which  the  first  crack  appears, 
the  method  of  failure,  and  the  maximum  load. 
Test  the  remaining  beams  in  a  similar  manner. 

210.  Report.  Tabulate  all  of  the  data,  for  the 
specimens  tested,  which  were  obtained  at  the  time 
the  specimens  were  made,  and  all  of  the  data  which 
were  obtained  at  the  time  of  the  test.  State  the 


TESTS   OF  CONCRETE  107 

amount  of  the  deflection  and  the  deformation  for 
each  reading,  the  unit  stress  in  the  concrete  and  in 
the  steel  for  the  load  at  which  the  first  crack  ap- 
peared and  for  the  maximum  load,  as  determined 
both  from  the  deformation  and  by  computation 
from  the  load.  Plot  curves  of  the  deflections,  the 
deformations,  and  the  position  of  the  neutral  axis. 


108  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

PROBLEM  B8. 

Test  of  Concrete  Columns. 

211.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  purpose 
of  determining  the  ultimate  strength  of  plain  and 
reinforced  concrete  columns. 

212.  Apparatus   Required.     A   testing  machine 
suitable  for  long  vertical  specimens  with  a  capacity 
of  not  less  than  100,000  pounds,  deformeter  similar 
to  Fig.  45  or  Fig.  46,  pages  51-52,  two  strips  of 
mirrored  glass  with  a  scale  or  rule  attached  to  each, 
some  thread  or  fine  wire,  and  two  plumb  bobs. 

213.  Materials  Required.     As  many  plain  and 
reinforced  concrete  columns  as  desired,  building 
paper,  and  plaster  of  Paris. 

214.  Method  of  Operation.     Place  one  column 
on  the  table  of  the  testing  machine,  with  a  layer 
of  building  paper  under  the  column,  and  a  layer  of 
plaster   of   Paris   between   the   concrete   and   the 
paper.     See  that  the  scale  beam  of  the  machine  is 
balanced  for  zero  load.     Attach  one  of  the  frames 
of  the  deformeter  to  the  column  near  the  upper 
end  and  attach  the  other  frame  near  the  lower  end. 
Measure  carefully  the  distance  between  frames  and 
the  position  of  the  points  of  contact.     Read  each 
micrometer  or  dial.     Coat  the  upper  end  of  the 
column  with  plaster  of  Paris,   on  top  of  which 
place  a  layer  of  building  paper.     Then  run  the 
movable  head  of  the  machine  down  until  the  com- 


TESTS   OF  CONCRETE  IOQ 

pression  face  is  in  contact  with  the  paper.  Apply 
a  small  load  and  allow  the  machine  to  stand  thus 
while  the  plaster  of  Paris  is  setting.  Near  the 
upper  end  of  each  .'of  two  faces  of  the  column,  at 
right  angles  to  each  other,  attach  a  piece  of  thread  or 
fine  wire.  To  the  lower  end  of  each  thread  or  wire 
attach  a  plumb  bob.  Near  the  center  of  each  of 
the  two  faces  of  the  column  attach  a  mirror  and 
scale  to  the  concrete,  so  that  the  scale  can  be  used 
to  measure  the  deflection  of  the  column.  Bring  the 
eye  into  line  with  one  plumb  line  and  its  reflection 
in  the  mirror,  and  note  the  reading  on  the  scale. 
Read  the  other  scale  in  like  manner.  Apply  the 
load  in  increments  of  not  more  than  one- tenth  of 
the  estimated  ultimate  load,  observing  for  each 
increment  the  readings  of  the  deformeter  and  of 
the  plumb  lines.  Note  the  load  at  which  the  first 
crack  appears,  the  maximum  load,  and  the  method 
of  failure.  Test  the  remaining  columns  in  a  similar 
manner. 

215.  Report.  Tabulate  all  of  the  data,  for  the 
specimens  tested,  which  were  obtained  at  the 
time  the  columns  were  cast;  and  in  addition  tabu- 
late the  data  and  results  obtained  at  the  time  of 
the  test;  including  the  observed  readings,  the  load 
for  each  set  of  readings,  the  average  unit  stress,  the 
deformation,  and  the  deflection.  For  reinforced 
columns  determine  the  stress  in  the  concrete  and 
in  the  steel,  as  shown  by  the  deformation.  Plot 
curves  of  the  deflection  and  deformation. 


CHAPTER   V. 
TESTS   OF  IRON  AND   STEEL. 


PROBLEM  Ci. 

Tensile  Test  of  Wrought  Iron  and  Steel. 

216.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  ultimate  tensile  strength, 
the  yield  point,  the  ultimate  elongation,  and  the 
reduction  in  area  of  the  specimens  tested. 

217.  Apparatus    Required.     A     ioo,ooo-pound 
testing  machine  with  flat  grips,  for  specimens  cut 
from  steel  plates,  and  with  notched  grips,  for  round 
specimens;  a  micrometer  caliper;  a  laying-off  gauge 
or  scale;  and  a  center  punch  or  a  scriber. 

218.  Materials  Required.     A  number  of  round 
and  flat  specimens  of  wrought  iron  and  steel. 

219.  Method  of  Operation.     Measure  and  record 
the   cross   section   of  each   specimen,   taking   the 
measurements  with  a  micrometer  caliper.      Meas- 
ure each  specimen  at  several  points  using  the  mean 
value  of  the  area  of  section.     Record  the  kind  of 
material  for  each  specimen,  if  known.     With  the 
laying-off  gauge  mark  a  length  of  8   inches   on 
each   specimen,   dividing   this   length  into    i-inch 
spaces.     Place    one    specimen    in    the    machine, 


TESTS   OF  IRON   AND   STEEL  III 

observing  the  instructions  given  on  page  3. 
Start  the  machine,  using  a  medium  speed  for  the 
test.  Keep  the  scale  beam  carefully  balanced. 
When  the  yield  point*  of  the  material  is  reached 
the  scale  beam  will  drop  momentarily,  at  which 
point  the  load  should  be  noted  and  recorded.  As 
the  load  increases  the  beam  will  again  rise  and  the 
beam  should  be  kept  balanced  until  the  maximum 
load  is  reached.  Record  the  maximum  load,  and 
remove  the  broken  specimen  from  the  machine. 
Measure  and  record  the  reduced  diameter  or  sec- 
tion and  the  length  between  gauge  marks.  Ob- 
serve and  record  the  character  of  fracture.  Test 
each  specimen  in  a  similar  manner. 

220.  Report.  Tabulate  the  data  and  the  results, 
giving  the  kind  of  material,  the  dimensions,  the 
area  of  cross  section,  the  maximum  load,  the  ulti- 
mate strength,  the  total  load  at  the  yield  point, 
the  unit  stress  at  the  yield  point,  the  gauge  length, 
the  amount  of  elongation,  the  percentage  of  elon- 
gation, the  reduced  cross  section,  the  reduction  in 
area,  the  percentage  of  reduction  in  area,  the 
character  of  fracture,  and  any  observations  noted, 
for  each  specimen.  State  the  average  values  of 
the  ultimate  strength  and  of  the  unit  stress  at  the 
yield  point,  for  each  kind  of  material  used,  and 
the  probable  error  of  each  mean,  as  determined  by 
the  formula  on  page  76. 

*  No  yield  point  will  be  observed  for  specimens  of  hard  steel. 


112  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

PROBLEM  C2. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity  of  Iron  and  Steel. 

221.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  coefficient  of  elasticity  of 
wrought  iron  and  steel  and  the  elastic  limit  of  each 
in  tension. 

222.  Apparatus    Required.      A     ioo,ooo-pound 
testing  machine,  with  notched  grips  for  holding 
round  specimens,  a  duplex  micrometer  extensometer 
with  electric  battery  and  bell,  or  a  dial  extensometer, 
and  a  micrometer  caliper. 

223.  Materials  Required.     One  or  more  speci- 
mens of  each  kind  of  material  to  be  tested.     The 
test  pieces  for  this  experiment  should  be  turned 
specimens  having  a  diameter  of  f  inch  or  f  inch  for 
a  length  of  at  least  9  inches,  with  enlarged  ends. 
Each  end  should  have  a  gripping  length  of  at  least 
4  inches.     A  gauge  length  of  8  inches  should  be 
marked  upon  the  central  portion  of  the  specimen.* 

224.  Method  of  Operation.     Measure  the  diam- 
eter of  each  specimen  at  several  points,  using  the 
micrometer  caliper,  and  record  the  mean  value  for 
each  specimen.     Insert  one  specimen  in  the  machine 
and  attach  the  extensometer.     Connect  the  electric 
battery  and  bell,  if  they  are  required.     Observe 
and  record  the  reading  of  each  micrometer  or  dial. 

*  The  specimens  can  be  easily  marked  while  in  the  lathe  at  the 
time  they  are  turned. 


TESTS   OF  IRON  AND   STEEL  113 

Apply  the  load  slowly  in  increments  of  500  pounds, 
taking  the  readings  of  the  extensometer  for  each 
increment.  Compute  the  probable  value  of  the 
maximum  load,  and  when  five-sixths  of  this  amount 
has  been  applied  remove  the  extensometer.  Then 
continue  the  application  of  the  load  until  the  spec- 
imen breaks.  Record  all  the  data  obtained.  Test 
the  remaining  specimens  in  a  similar  manner. 

225.  Report.  Tabulate  the  data  and  results, 
giving  the  kind  of  steel,  the  original  diameter  of 
each  specimen,  the  area  of  cross  section,  the  amount 
of  the  load  for  each  reading,  the  maximum  load, 
the  unit  stress  corresponding  to  each  load,  all  of 
the  readings  of  each  dial  or  micrometer,  the  total 
amount  of  elongation  for  each  set  of  readings,  for 
each  dial  or  micrometer,  the  average  elongation  for 
each  set  of  readings,  the  values  of  average  unit 
elongation,  and  the  values  of  the  coefficient  of 
elasticity  obtained  by  dividing  values  of  the  unit 
stress  less  than  the  elastic  limit  by  corresponding 
values  of  unit  deformation.  To  determine  the 
elastic  limit  of  each  specimen  plot  the  stress-defor- 
mation curve  and  note  the  point  at  which  it  ceases 
to  be  a  straight  line.  Hand  in  the  curves  with 
your  results.  Compare  your  results  with  the 
values  given  in  your  textbooks,  stating  the  values 
found  for  the  coefficient  of  elasticity  and  the  elastic 
limit,  and  state  the  authority  in  each  case. 


MATERIALS   TESTING   MANUAL 


PROBLEM  €3. 

Shearing  Test  of  Steel. 

226.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  shearing  strength  of  steel 
rivets. 

227.  Apparatus   Required.     A   testing  machine 
with  flat  grips,  and  two  shearing  devices  similar  to 
those  shown  in  Fig.  53,  and  a  micrometer  caliper. 


Slotted  Hole 
Hole  for 

Hole  for  %Rivet 
Slotted  Hole 


Fig-  53-  —  Shearing  Devices 

Each  shearing  device  should  be  provided  with  bolts 
for  the  slotted  holes. 

228.  Materials  Required.     Rivets  of  the  proper 
size  to  fit  the  shearing  devices  to  be  used. 

229.  Method  of  Operation.     Measure  the  thick- 
ness of  the  parts  of  each  shearing  device.     Try  a 


Bolt 


TESTS  OF  IRON   AND   STEEL  115 

rivet  in  the  proper  hole  and  mark  the  position  of  the 
shearing  section.  Remove  the  rivet  and  measure 
the  diameter  of  the  marked  section,  with  a  microm- 
eter caliper.  Place  the  rivet  snugly  in  position, 
having  the  parts  of  the  shearing  device  held  to- 
gether by  bolts  in  the  slotted  holes.  Place  the  ends 
of  the  shearing  device  in  the  grips  of  the  testing 
machine  and  tighten  the  grips.  Apply  the  load 
using  the  slow  motion.  Record  the  maximum  load. 
Test  at  least  five  rivets  in  single  shear  and  an  equal 
number  in  double  shear. 

230.  Report.  Tabulate  the  data  and  results,  for 
single  shear  and  for  double  shear,  stating  the  kind 
of  steel,  the  diameter  of  rivet,  the  area  of  cross 
section,  the  maximum  load,  and  the  unit  shear  for 
each  specimen.  Also,  record  the  average  unit  shear 
for  each  kind  of  steel  tested,  and  the  probable 
error  of  each  mean  as  given  by  the  formula  on 
page  76. 


Il6  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

PROBLEM  €4. 

Cold  Bend  Test  of  Iron  and  Steel. 

231.  Object.     The  purpose  of  this  experiment  is 
to  illustrate  the  difference  in  ductility  of  different 
kinds  of  iron  and  steel,  as  exhibited  by  the  cold 
bend  test. 

232.  Apparatus  Required.    Anvil  *  and  sledge. 

233.  Materials  Required.     Specimens  of  wrought 
iron,  soft  steel,  and  medium  steel,  in  the  form  of 
either  bars  or  plates. 

234.  Method  of  Operation.     Bend  the  specimens 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  wrought  iron  and  soft 
steel  shall  be  bent  180  degrees,  flat  upon  itself,  and 
so  that  the  medium  steel  shall  be  bent  180  degrees 
to  a  radius  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  material. 
Examine  the  bent  specimens  for  cracks  or  signs  of 
failure. 

235.  Report.     Record  the  results  and  observa- 
tions of  the  test,  and  give  the  requirements  of  the 
specifications  of  the  American  Society  for  Testing 
Materials,  stating  whether  the  specifications  have 
been  fulfilled  in  each  case. 

*  A  heavy  iron  block  with  holes  of  proper  size  at  various  in- 
clinations is  a  more  convenient  device  than  an  ordinary  anvil, 
or  specimens  may  be  bent  by  steady  pressure  in  a  testing  machine. 


TESTS   OF  IRON  AND   STEEL  117 

PROBLEM  C5. 

Torsion  Test  of  Steel. 

236.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  coefficient  of  elasticity  of 
steel  in  shear,  the  elastic  limit  of  steel  in  shear,  and 
the  torsional  modulus  of  rupture 'of  steel. 

237.  Apparatus  Required.     Torsional  testing  ma- 
chine with  arm  and  graduated  arc  for  measuring 
the  angle  of  twist,  and  a  micrometer  caliper. 

238.  Materials  Required.     One  or  more  pieces 
of  steel  shafting  or  round  steel  bar  of  suitable  size 
for  the  testing  machine. 

239.  Method  of  Operation.     Place  the  specimen 
in  the  machine  and  adjust  the  indicator  for  reading 
the  angle  of  twist.     Measure  the  diameter  of  the 
specimen  at  a  number  of  points,  with  the  microm- 
eter caliper,  and  record  the  results.     Also,  measure 
the  length  of  the  specimen.     Apply  the  load  slowly, 
reading  and  recording  the  angle  of  twist  for  succes- 
sive increments  of  the  load.     Continue  thus  until 
the  specimen  fails,  noting  the  maximum  twisting 
moment.     Test  the  remaining  specimens  in  a  simi- 
lar manner. 

240.  Report.     Tabulate  the   data   and  results, 
stating  the  kind  of  steel,  length  of  specimen,  diam- 
eter of  specimen,  the  polar  moment  of  inertia  of  the 
cross  section,  the  value  of  the  moment  of  inertia 


Il8  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

divided  by  the  radius  of  the  shaft,  the  unit  stress  * 
for  each  reading,  the  maximum  stress,  the  total 
twist  for  each  reading,  the  twist  per  unit  length, 
the  unit  detrusionf  at  the  circumference  of  the 
shaft,  and  the  coefficient  of  elasticity  {  for  shear  for 
value  of  the  unit  stress  within  the  elastic  limit. 
Plot  the  values  of  the  unit  shear  and  unit  detru- 
sion  upon  coordinate  paper,  from  which  the  elastic 
limit  can  be  determined.  Record  the  value  of  the 
elastic  limit  thus  obtained. 

*  If  M  is  the  twisting  moment  in  pound-inches,  /o  the  polar 
moment  of  inertia,  R  the  radius  of  the  shaft,  and  S  the  unit  shear- 

K/T  7? 
ing  stress,  then  for  a  circular  section,  51  =  — =—    which  is  strictlv 

/o 
correct  only  within  the  elastic  limit. 

r> 

f  Obtained  by  multiplying  the  twist  per  unit  length  by  —=-  • 

J  The  coefficient  of  elasticity  is  equal  to  the  unit  stress  divided 
by  the  unit  detrusion. 


TESTS   OF  IRON   AND   STEEL  119 

PROBLEM  C6. 

Transverse  Test  of  Cast  Iron. 

241.  Object.     This  test  is  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  the  flexural  strength  and  the  coefficient 
of  elasticity  of  cast  iron. 

242.  Apparatus  Required.     A  testing  machine 
with  a  V-block  attached  to  the  movable  head, 
rocker  or  roller  supports  for  short  beams,  calipers 
for  measuring  the  specimens,  and  a  deflection  indi- 
cator similar  to  Fig.  47,  page  53. 

243.  Materials  Required.     Three  or  more  speci- 
mens of  cast  iron  ij  inches  in  diameter  by  18  inches 
in  length,  and  three  or  more  specimens  i  inch  by 
2  inches  by  18  inches. 

244.  Method   of   Operation.     Adjust   the    sup- 
ports making  the  length  of  span  16  inches,  and 
noting  that  the   supports    are  symmetrical    with 
respect  to  the  V-block  of  the  movable  head.     Meas- 
ure and  record  the  cross  section  of  each  specimen. 
Place  one  of  the  specimens  in  position  on  the  sup- 
ports, r,un  the  movable  head  of  the  machine  down 
until  the  bearing  block  is  in  contact  with  the  speci- 
men, and  place  the  deflection  indicator  in  position, 
with  the  contact  point  touching  the  bearing  block.* 
Adjust  the  indicator  to  read  zero,  and  apply  the 
load   in   increments,    reading    and   recording    the 

*  Do  not  place  the  indicator  under  the  specimen  or  it  may  be 
injured  when  the  specimen  breaks. 


120  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

amount  of  each  load  and  the  deflection.  Con- 
tinue thus  until  the  specimen  breaks,  observing  the 
maximum  load.  Test  each  specimen  in  a  similar 
manner. 

245.  Report.  Tabulate  the  data  and  the  results, 
stating  the  dimensions  of  each  specimen,  the  length 
of  span,  the  total  load  for  each  reading,  the  unit 
flexural  stress  for  each  load,  the  deflection  for  each 
load,  and  the  coefficient  of  elasticity  for  each  speci- 
men. Compute  the  mean  values  of  the  modulus 
of  rupture  and  of  the  coefficient  of  elasticity  for 
the  round  specimens  and  for  the  rectangular 
specimens. 


TESTS  OF  IRON   AND   STEEL  121 

PROBLEM  C7. 

Impact  Test  of  Iron  or  Steel. 

246.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose  of   determining   the   flexural    stress    at   the 
elastic  limit,   the  modulus  of  elasticity,   and  the 
modulus  of  resilience  of  the  materials  tested,  when 
subjected  to  suddenly  applied  loads^  and  for  the 
purpose  of  exhibiting  the  behavior  and  method  of 
failure  of  the  given  materials  under  such  loads. 

247.  Apparatus   Required.      A   Turner   impact 
testing  machine,*  similar  to  Fig.  33,  page  40,  with 
drum  for  making  autographic  records  of  the  deflec- 
tion, and  with  supports  for  transverse  specimens; 
a  micrometer  caliper;  and  a  rule. 

248.  Materials  Required.    A  number  of  speci- 
mens of  each  kind  of  material  to  be  tested,  in  the 
form  of  beams  from  3  to  4  feet  in  length,  and  paper 
for  the  recording  drum. 

249.  Method  of  Operation.     Attach  the  paper 
to  the  recording  drum  and  see  that  the  stylus  of 
the  tuning  fork  is  properly  adjusted.     Measure  the 
dimensions  of  one  beam  with  the  caliper,  place  the 
specimen  On  the  supports,  and  clamp  it  in  place. 
Measure  the  length  of  span  and  see  that  the  point 
of  impact  of  the  hammer  is  at  the  center  of  span. 
Bring  the   hammer   into  position  so  that  it  just 

*  For  a  description  of  this  machine,  see  the  Proceedings  of  the 
American  Society  for  Testing  Materials,  Vol.  VI,  page  462. 


122  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

touches  the  surface  of  the  specimen,  see  that  the 
pencil  is  touching  the  paper  on  the  drum,  and  re- 
volve the  drum  to  mark  upon  the  record  the  datum 
line.  Then  permit  the  weight  of  the  hammer  to 
rest  upon  the  beam,  and  record  the  static  deflec- 
tion. Raise  the  hammer  a  short  distance  and  allow 
it  to  fall  upon  the  specimen.  Before  the  hammer 
drops,  strike  the  tuning  fork  to  cause  it  to  vibrate, 
and  as  the  hammer  falls  rotate  the  drum  slowly, 
continuing  the  rotation  until  the  vibration  of  the 
specimen  ceases.  Record  height  of  drop,  and  mark 
the  graph  obtained  to  indicate  the  number  of  the 
blow.  In  like  manner  continue  to  deliver  blows 
upon  the  specimen,  using  increasing  heights  of 
fall,  until  the  specimen  breaks.  For  each  trial 
measure  the  deflection,  the  rebound,  and  the  per- 
manent set.  Record  the  weight  used.  Test  the 
remaining  specimens  in  a  similar  manner. 

250.  Report.  Tabulate  all  of  the  data  and  obser- 
vations, and  the  computed  values  of  the  fiber  stress 
at  the  elastic  limit,*  the  modulus  of  elasticity,  f 
and  the  modulus  of  resilience.}  For  each  speci- 

*  S  =  — — j— ,  in  which  S  =  fiber  stress,  W  =  load  in  pounds, 

H  =  height  of  fall  in  inches,  L  =  length  of  span  in  inches,  d  = 
depth  of  beam  in  inches,  A  =  deflection  in  inches,  /  =  moment 
of  inertia. 

t  E  =  - — -j ,  in  which  E  =  modulus  of  elasticity,  and  other 
values  as  above. 

t  R  =  3          i  ,  in  which  R  —  modulus  of  resilience,  A  = 


TESTS   OF  IRON   AND   STEEL  123 

men  plot  a  curve,  using  the  squares  of  the  deflections 
as  abscissas  and  the  heights  of  fall  as  ordinates. 
The  point  at  which  the  curve  departs  from  a  straight 
line  indicates  the  elastic  limit.* 

area  of  cross  section,  r  =  radius  of  gyration,  and  other  values  are 
as  heretofore  defined.  I R  =  ~  -^  ,  in  which  Se  is  the  unit  stress 
at  the  elastic  limit 


WHL3 
*  A2  =  ,  in  which  the  values  are  the   same  as  in  the 

formulas  given  for  51,  E,  and  R. 


CHAPTER   VI. 
TESTS   OF  WOOD. 


PROBLEM  Di. 

Tensile  Test  of  Wood. 

251.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  tensile  strength  of  the  kinds 
of  wood  tested. 

252.  Apparatus  Required.    A  vertical-screw  test- 
ing machine  of  50,000  or  100,000  pounds  capac- 
ity, with  flat  jaw  grips,  and  a  measuring  scale  or 
steel  rule. 

253.  Materials  Required.     Three  or  more  speci- 

mens of  each  kind  of  wood 
to  be  tested.  A  suitable 
form  for  the  test  pieces  is 
shown  in  Fig.  54. 

254.  Method  of  Oper- 
ation. Record  the  kind 
of  wood  and  the  dimen- 
sions for  each  specimen. 
Place  one  specimen  in  the 
k-2-Vj  grips  of  the  machine,  and 

Fig.  54.  —  Specimen  for  Tensile       apply  the   load   USHlg  the 

second    speed.      As    the 
load  increases  the  wood  between  the  two  jaws  of 

each  head  will  be  compressed,  thus  allowing  them 

124 


TESTS  OF  WOOD 

to  slide  in  the  direction  of  pull.  For  this  reason 
the  small  ends  of  the  jaws  should  not  be  out  flush 
with  the  surface  of  the  head  at  the  beginning  of 
the  test.  Also,  see  that  the  specimen  is  thrust 
well  back  into  each  set  of  jaws.  Use  care  to  set 
the  specimen  plumb,  in  order  that  it  may  receive 
a  direct  pull,  without  any  twisting  in  the  grips. 
Record  the  maximum  load  and  the  method  of 
failure.  Test  the  remaining  specimens  in  a  similar 
manner. 

255.  Report.  Tabulate  the  data  and  results, 
stating  the  kind  of  wood,  dimensions  of  test  piece, 
area  of  section,  observed  load  and  unit  stress  for 
each  test  piece.  Also,  state  the  average  unit  stress 
for  each  kind  of  wood  and  the  probable  error*  for 
each  average.  Compare  your  results  with  the 
values  of  the  ultimate  tensile  strength  given  in 
your  textbooks,  reporting  the  values  found  and  the 
authority  for  each. 

*  For  formula  for  probable  error,  see  paragraph  129,  p.  76. 


126 


MATERIALS  TESTING   MANUAL 


PROBLEM  D2. 

Longitudinal  Shear  of  Wood. 

256.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  purpose 
of  determining   the   shearing   strength   along   the 
grain  of  the  various  kinds  of  wood  tested. 

257.  Apparatus  Required.    A  vertical-screw  test- 
ing machine  of  50,000  or  100,000  pounds  capac- 

ity, with  flat  jaw 
grips  for  one  head 
only,  a  shearing  de- 
vice similar  to  that 
shown  in  Fig.  55,  a 
plate  or  collar  with 
a  3-inch  hole,  a  steel 
pin  |  inch  in  diam- 
eter by  6  inches  in 
length,  and  a  meas- 
scale or  steel 


J 

L  j 

\ 

H 
f 

1 

.  I. 

< 

t     6 

^ 

SJ 

-1 

^R 


Loose  Fin 
l"x  l"x  I" 


'f 


Fig.  55.  —  Device  for  Testing  Longitudi- 
nal Shear  of  Wood 


urng 

rule. 
258.  Materials  Re- 

quired.     Three    or 

more  specimens  of  each  species  of  wood  to  be 
tested.  The  form  of  the  test  piece  is  shown  in 
Fig.  56. 

259.  Method  of  Operation.  Observe  and  record 
the  kind  of  wood  and  the  dimensions  of  each  test 
piece.  Remove  all  attachments  from  the  fixed 
head  of  the  testing  machine,  and  place  the  shearing 


! 

o 

S|S 

"T 

5 

J. 

oc 

2 

01 

B/ 

_  ?    _  : 

— >J     2"  ;•< —       — H     2"  K — 

Fig.  56.  —  Form  of  Specimen  for  Longitudinal  Shear  Test  of  Wood 
-Specimen 


Fixed  Head  of 
<^  Machine 


-Movable  Head 


Fig.  57.  —  Arrangement  for  Testing  Longitudinal  Shear  of  Wood 

(127) 


128  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

device  in  the  grips  of  the  movable  head.  Place  one 
test  piece  in  position  as  shown  in  Fig.  57.  Apply  the 
load,  keeping  the  scale  beam  balanced  until  failure 
occurs.  A  speed  somewhat  faster  than  the  slowest 
will  probably  be  desirable.  Record  the  breaking 
load,  character  of  failure,  and  any  other  observa- 
tions of  interest.  Test  each  specimen  in  a  similar 
manner. 

260.  Report.  Tabulate  the  data  and  results, 
stating  species  of  wood,  dimensions,  area  of  shearing 
section,  total  load,  and  unit  shear  for  each  speci- 
men. Also,  report  the  average  unit  shear  for  each 
kind  of  wood,  and  the  probable  error*  for  each 
average.  Compare  your  results  with  the  values  for 
longitudinal  shear  given  in  your  textbooks,  report- 
ing the  values  found  and  the  authority. 

*  For  formula  for  probable  error,  see  paragraph  129,  p.  76. 


TESTS   OF   WOOD  129 

PROBLEM  Da. 

Crushing  Strength  of  Wood. 

261.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose   of    determining    the    ultimate    compressive 
strength  of  the  species  of  wood  tested,  both  along 
and  across  the  grain. 

262.  Apparatus     Required.     A     ioo,ooo-pound 
testing  machine,  with  compression  block  attached 
to  the  movable  head,  and  a  measuring  scale  or  steel 
rule. 

263.  Materials  Required.     Six  or  more  speci- 
mens of  each  kind  of  wood  to  be  tested,  each  speci- 
men to  be  2  by  4  by  4  inches.     One-half  of  the 
number  of  specimens  of  each  kind  should  have 
true  faces  for  compression  across  the  grain,  and  the 
other  half  should  have  true  faces  for  compression 
along  the  grain,  the  area  of  cross  section  in  com- 
pression for  each  set  being  2  by  4  inches. 

264.  Method  of  Operation.     Observe  and  record 
the  species  of  wood  and  the  dimensions  for  each 
specimen.     Place  one  specimen  upon  the  table  of 
the  testing  machine  or  upon  an  iron  or  steel  block 
set  upon  the  table  of  the  machine.*     Run  the  mov- 
able head  down  until  the  compression  block  is  in 
contact  with  the  specimen.     Apply  the  load,  using 
the  slowest  speed.     Observe  and  record  the  maxi- 

*  The  latter  method  is  preferable  since  it  does  not  require  the 
movable  head  to  be  run  down  close  to  the  table. 


130  MATERIALS  TESTING   MANUAL 

mum  load,  the  character  of  failure,  and  any  other 
observations  of  interest.  Test  each  specimen  in  a 
similar  manner,  placing  half  of  the  number  of  speci- 
mens of  each  kind  so  that  they  will  receive  com- 
pression across  the  grain  and  the  others  so  that 
they  will  receive  compression  along  the  grain. 

265.  Report.  Tabulate  the  data  and  results, 
stating  species  of  wood,  dimensions,  area  of  cross 
section,  total  load,  and  maximum  unit  stress  for 
each  specimen.  Also,  state  the  average  unit  stress 
for  each  set  of  results,  and  the  probable  error* 
of  each  average.  Compare  your  results  with  the 
values  for  crushing  strength  of  wood  given  in  your 
textbooks,  reporting  the  values  found  and  the 
authority. 

*  For  formula  for  probable  error,  see  paragraph  129,  p.  76. 


TESTS   OF  WOOD  131 

PROBLEM  04. 

Flexural  Test  of  Wood. 

266.  Object.    This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  ultimate  flexural  strength, 
the  modulus  of  elasticity,  and  the  horizontal  shear- 
ing strength  *  of  the  specimens  tested. 

267.  Apparatus  Required.    A  testing  machine, 
preferably  a  small  machine  adapted  to  transverse 
tests  of  wood,  similar  to  Fig.  30,  page  37,  or  a 
vertical  screw-testing  machine  with  wings  for  test- 
ing beams  and  a  V-block  for  applying  the  load.     If 
the  latter  machine  is  used,  there  will  also  be  re- 
quired two  rocker  or  roller  supports,  three  steel 
plates  for  bearing  against  the  wood,  a  mirror  and 
scale,  and  some  thread. 

268.  Materials  Required.    Three  or  more  speci- 
mens of  each  kind  of  wood,  the  size  of  the  speci- 
mens depending  upon  the  capacity  of  the  machine. 
For  a  ioo,ooo-pound  testing  machine  pieces  2  by  4 
inches  by  4  feet  6  inches  in  length  or  4  by  4  inches 
by  6  feet  6  inches  in  length  will  be  suitable. 

269.  Method  of  Operation.     Measure  and  record 
the  dimensions  of  each  specimen  and  mark  the 
position  of  the  points  of  support  and  the  point  of 
application  of  the  load.     If  a  machine  similar  to 

*  The  horizontal  shearing  strength  is  to  be  determined  for 
only  those  specimens  which  fall  by  shearing  along  the  neutral 
axis. 


132  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

Fig.  30  is  used,  place  one  specimen  in  position  and 
set  the  deflection  indicator.  Apply  the  load  in 
increments  of  not  more  than  one-tenth  of  the  esti- 
mated ultimate  load,  observing  and  recording  the 
deflection  for  each  load.  Record  the  maximum 
load  and  the  method  of  failure.  Test  each  specimen 
in  a  similar  manner. 

270.  If  a  ioo,ooo-pound  testing  machine  is  used, 
place  the  rocker  or  roller  supports  on  the  wings  of 
the  table  of  the  machine,  spacing  them  at  equal 
distances  on  either  side  of  the  bearing  block.  For 
2-  by  4-inch  lumber  use  a  span  of  4  feet,  and  for  4- 
by  4-inch  lumber  use  a  6-foot  span.  Place  2-  by 
4-inch  pieces  so  that  the  depth  of  the  beam  will  be 
2  inches.  Place  a  steel  plate  between  each  support 
and  the  beam,  and  place  one  plate  between  the  beam 
and  the  bearing  block.  At  the  center  .of  one  side 
of  the  beam  attach  the  mirror  and  scale  in  a  vertical 
position.  Drive  a  nail  into  the  side  of  the  beam  at 
the  neutral  surface  and  over  each  support.  Stretch 
a  thread  from  one  nail,  in  front  of  the  mirror  and 
scale,  to  the  other  nail,  allowing  it  to  pass  over  the 
nail  to  a  weight.  Bring  the  eye  on  a  level  with 
the  thread  and  its  image  in  the  mirror,  and  observe 
the  reading  on  the  scale.  Apply  the  load  in  incre- 
ments of  not  more  than  one-tenth  of  the  estimated 
ultimate  load,  observing  and  recording  the  deflec- 
tion reading  for  each  increment.  Record  the  max- 
imum load  and  the  method  of  failure.  Test  each 
specimen  in  a  similar  manner. 


TESTS   OF  WOOD  133 

271.  Report.  Tabulate  the  data  and  results, 
stating  the  kind  of  wood,  length  of  span,  dimen- 
sions of  cross  section,  the  section  factor,  the  total 
load  for  each  reading,  the  unit  flexural  stress  for 
each  reading,  the  deflection  readings,  the  deflec- 
tions, the  coefficient  of  elasticity  for  each  deflection 
within  the  elastic  limit,  the  unit  horizontal  shear  for 
the  maximum  load,  and  the  method  of  failure. 
For  those  specimens  of  each  kind  which  fail  by 
cross-breaking,  compute  the  mean  value  of  the 
modulus  of  rupture,  and  for  those  specimens  which 
fail  by  longitudinal  shear  compute  the  mean  value 
of  the  maximum  unit  horizontal  shear.  Also, 
compute  the  mean  value  of  the  coefficient  of  elas- 
ticity for  each  kind  of  wood.  Plot  a  curve  for  each 
specimen  using  as  abscissas  the  loads  observed  and 
as  ordinates  the  deflections.  Mark  the  point  at 
which  the  elastic  limit  occurs,  and  determine  the 
corresponding  stress. 


134  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

PROBLEM  DS. 

Impact  Test  of  Wood. 

272.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  fiber  stress  at  the  elastic 
limit,  the  modulus  of  elasticity,  and  the  modulus 
of  resilience  of  the  wood  tested,  when  subjected 
to  suddenly  applied  loads,  and  for  the  purpose  of 
exhibiting  the  behavior  and  method  of  failure  of  the 
given  materials  under  such  loads. 

273.  Apparatus  Required.     The  same  equipment 
as  for  Problem  Cy. 

274.  Materials  Required.    A  number  of  speci- 
mens of  each  kind  of  wood  to  be  tested,  in  the  form 
of  beams  2  by  2  inches  by  3  feet  6  inches,  and  paper 
for  the  recording  drum. 

275.  Method  of  Operation.     Follow  the  instruc- 
tions for  Problem  Cy. 

276.  Report.     Follow  the  instructions  for  Prob- 
lem C;. 


CHAPTER   VII. 
TESTS   OF  BRICK. 


PROBLEM  Ei. 

Transverse  Test  of  Brick. 

277.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  modulus  of  rupture  of  the 
brick  tested. 

278.  Apparatus  Required.    A  50,000-  or  100,000- 
pound  testing  machine  with  V-shaped  bearing  block, 
two  rocker  or  roller  supports,  three  steel  plates  J 
by  i|  by  5  inches,  a  wooden  pillow  block  5  by  5  by 
12  inches,  with  one  5-  by  1 2-inch  surface  slightly 
crowned  from  the  center  to  each  side,  and  a  good 
rule  (preferably  graduated  to  inches  and  tenths  of 
inches). 

279.  Materials  Required.     Five  or  more  bricks 
of  each  kind. 

280.  Method  of  Operation.*     Place  the  pillow 
block  on  the  center  of  the  table  of  the  testing  ma- 
chine, with  the  crowned  surface  up.     Place  the 

*  The  method  here  used  is  in  accordance  with  the  method 
recommended  by  Committee  D  of  the  American  Society  for  Test- 
ing Materials,  for  which  see  Proceedings  of  that  society,  Vol.  IX, 
page  131. 

135 


136  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

rockers  or  rollers  upon  the  pillow  block,  making  the 
span  7  inches,  and  having  the  center  of  span  verti- 
cally under  the  V-shaped  bearing  block  of  the  mov- 
able head.  Measure  and  record  the  dimensions  of 
all  of  the  specimens.  Place  one  brick  flatwise  upon 
the  rockers  or  rollers,  with  a  steel  plate  between 
each  support  and  the  brick.  Place  a  similar  plate 
on  top  of  the  brick  and  under  the  bearing  block. 
Apply  the  load,  using  the  slow  motion,  observing 
and  recording  the  breaking  load  and  the  character 
of  the  failure.  Save  the  half  bricks  resulting  from 
the  test  for  use  in  making  compression  and  absorp- 
tion tests.  Test  each  brick  in  a  similar  manner. 

281.  Report.  Tabulate  the  data  and  results 
stating  the  kind  of  brick,  brand  or  name  of  manu- 
facturer, dimensions,  breaking  load,  modulus  of 
rupture,*  and  method  of  failure  for  each  specimen. 
Also,  state  the  average  value  of  the  modulus  of 
rupture  for  each  set,  and  compute  the  probable 
error f  of  each  average.  Compare  your  results 
with  the  values  given  in  your  textbooks,  reporting 
the  values  found  and  the  authority. 

*  M r  =  3  ,  ,2  ,  in  which  Mr  =  modulus  of  rupture,  W  =  load 

in  pounds,  L  =  length  of  span  in  inches,  b  =  breadth  in  inches, 
and  d  =  depth  in  inches. 

f  For  formula  for  probable  error,  see  paragraph  129,  p.  76. 


TESTS   OF  BRICK  137 

PROBLEM  E2. 

Absorption  Test  of  Brick. 

282.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  percentage  of  water  ab- 
sorbed by  the  brick  tested. 

283.  Apparatus  Required.     Drying  oven,  ther- 
mometer, Harvard  Trip  balance  with  set  of  weights, 
and  a  sufficient  number  of  deep-covered  pans  to 
accommodate  all  of  the  specimens. 

284.  Materials  Required.      One    half   of    each 
brick  tested  in  Problem  Ei,  blotting  paper,  and 
water. 

285.  Method  of  Operation.*    Weigh  each  speci- 
men carefully,  and  mark  it  for  future  identification. 
Place  the  samples  in  a  drying  oven  and  dry  them 
at  a  temperature  of  from  200°  to  250°  F.     At  inter- 
vals weigh  each  test  piece,  and  permit  the  drying  to 
continue  until  the  weight  remains  constant.     Then 
place  the   specimens  in   the   covered  pans,   face 
downward,  and  pour  in  water  to  the  depth  of  one 
inch.     Cover  the  pans  and  allow  them  to  stand. 
Weigh  each  specimen  at  intervals  of  one-half  hour, 
six  hours,  and  forty-eight  hours  from  the  time  of 
immersion,    first   removing   superfluous   moisture. 
If  the  bricks  are  not  to  be 'used  immediately  for 

*  The  method  here  used  is  in  accordance  with  the  method 
recommended  by  Committee  D  of  the  American  Society  for 
Testing  Materials,  for  which  see  Proceedings  of  that  society, 
Vol.  IX,  p.  132. 


138  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

crushing  tests,  replace  them  in  the  water  for  future 
use.  Compute  the  percentage  of  water  absorbed 
to  the  weight  of  the  dry  specimen,  in  each  case. 

286.  Report.  Tabulate  the  data  and  results, 
stating  the  kind  of  brick,  brand  or  name  of  manu- 
facturer, original  weight,  weight  dry,  loss  of  weight, 
weight  after  immersion  for  each  interval,  increase 
in  weight,  and  percentage  of  absorption,  for  each 
sample.  Report  the  average  percentage  for  each 
kind  for  each  interval,  and  the  probable  error  *  of 
each  average.  Compare  your  results  with  values 
given  in  your  textbooks,  reporting  the  values  found 
and  the  authority. 

*  For  formula  for  probable  error,  see  paragraph  129,  page  76. 


TESTS  OF  BRICK  139 

PROBLEM  £3. 

Compression  Test  of  Brick. 

287.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  crushing  strength  of  the 
brick  tested. 

288.  Apparatus     Required.      A   ioo,ooo-pound 
testing  machine  with  a  spherical  bearing  block, 
and  a  rule. 

289.  Materials  Required.    All  of  the  saturated 
specimens  remaining  from  Problem  £2,  and  the  re- 
maining halves  of  dry  specimens  from  Problem  Ei, 
some  blotting  or  building  paper,  and,  if  ^the  speci- 
mens are  rough,  some  shellac  and  plaster  of  Paris. 

290.  Method    of    Operation.*      Measure    and 
record  the  dimensions  of  each  specimen.     If  the 
bricks  are  rough,  coat  the  faces  of  the  dry  specimens 
with  shellac.     Place  one  specimen  flatwise  on  the 
table  of  the  testing  machine  or  on  an  iron  or  steel 
pillow  block,  bedding  the  brick  in  building  paper 
if  reasonably  smooth  or  in  plaster  of  Paris  if  the 
surface  is  rough.     Apply  the  load,  using  the  slowest 
motion,  observing  and  recording  the  maximum  load. 
Test  each  specimen  in  a  similar  manner,  keeping 
the  results  for  wet  and  dry  bricks  separate. 

*  The  method  here  used  is  in  accordance  with  the  method 
recommended  by  Committee  D  of  the  American  Society  for  Test- 
ing Materials,  for  which  see  Proceedings  of  that  society,  Vol.  IX, 
page  132. 


140  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

291.  Report.  Tabulate  the  data  and  results, 
stating  the  kind  of  brick,  brand  or  name  of  manu- 
facturer, dimensions,  area  in  compression,  total 
load,  and  maximum  unit  stress.  Report  the  aver- 
age unit  strength  for  dry  brick  and  for  wet  brick, 
for  each  kind,  and  the  probable  error*  of  each 
average.  Compare  your  results  with  the  values 
given  in  your  textbooks,  reporting  the  values  found 
and  the  authority. 

*  For  formula  for  probable  error,  see  paragraph  129,  page  76. 


TESTS   OF  BRICK  141 

PROBLEM  E4. 

Freezing  and  Thawing  Test  of  Brick. 

292.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  whether  freezing  and  thawing 
will  cause  disintegration,  cracking,  spalling,  or  loss 
of  strength  of  the  brick  tested. 

293.  Apparatus  Required.     Refrigerator  cooled 
by  freezing  mixture  or  ammonia  to  maintain  a 
temperature  of  less  than  15°  F.,  a  drying  oven,  a 
boiler  large  enough  to  accommodate  the  specimens, 
a  Harvard  Trip  balance  and  set  of  weights,  and 
all  of  the  equipment  required  for  Problems  Ei 
and  £3. 

294.  Materials  Required.     Five  or  more  bricks 
of  each  kind,  water,  ice,  blotting  or  building  paper, 
and  possibly  plaster  of  Paris. 

295.  Method  of  Operation.*    Place  the  speci- 
mens in  the  boiler  in  cold  water,  and   raise  the 
temperature  to  200°  F.  in  thirty  minutes,  and  then 
allow  to  cool     Next  immerse  the  specimens  in  ice 
water  for  not  less  than  one  hour,  after  which  they 
are  to  be  weighed  and  then  transferred  to  the  re- 
frigerator.      See  that  they  are  so  placed  in   the 
refrigerator  that  all  faces  are  exposed.     Subject  the 

*  The  method  here  used  is  in  accordance  with  the  method 
recommended  by  Committee  D  of  the  American  Society  for 
Testing  Materials,  for  which  see  Proceedings  of  that  society, 
Vol.  IX,  page  132. 


142  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

specimens  to  a  temperature  below  15°  F.  for  at 
least  five  hours,  then  remove  them  and  immerse 
them  in  water,  the  temperature  of  which  is  between 
150°  and  200°  F.,  for  one  hour.  Repeat  the 
freezing  and  thawing  twenty  times,  after  which 
the  bricks,  still  saturated,  are  to  be  weighed  again. 
During  the  test  observe  and  record  any  visible 
changes  in  the  character  of  the  specimens.  Upon 
completion  of  the  work  above  described,  dry  the 
specimens  in  an  oven  and  test  the  flexural  strength 
as  explained  in  Problem  Ei.  Subject  the  halves 
of  bricks,  resulting  from  the  transverse  test,  to  the 
crushing  test,  following  the  instructions  for  Prob- 
lem £3. 

296.  Report.  Tabulate  the  data  and  results, 
following  the  instructions  given  in  Problems  Ei 
and  £3  for  the  results  of  the  transverse  and  com- 
pression tests.  In  reporting  the  work  for  the  first 
portion  of  the  experiment,  state  weights  called  for, 
the  temperatures  in  each  case,  the  duration  of 
time  for  each  freezing  or  thawing,  and  the  obser- 
vations. 


TESTS   OF  BRICK  143 

PROBLEM  £5. 

Rattler  Test  of  Brick. 

297.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  resistance  of  the  brick 
tested  to  impact   and  abrasion,  as  indicated  by 
rattler  test  recommended  by  the  National  Brick 
Makers'  Association. 

298.  Apparatus  Required.    A  rattler  similar  to 
Fig.   36,   page  44;    75  pounds  of  cast-iron  shot, 
each  weighing  approximately  7^  pounds,  the  dimen- 
sions being  approximately  2\  inches  square  by  4^ 
inches  long,  with  corners  rounded  to  a  radius  of 
J  inch;  225  pounds  of  cast-iron  shot,  each  of  which 
weighs  approximately  £  pound,  the  form  being  a 
i^-inch  cube  with  square  corners  and  edges  (old 
shot  are  to  be  replaced  with  new  ones  when  they 
have  lost  one-tenth  of  their  original  weight);   a 
good  platform  scale,  a  rule,  and  a  drying  oven. 

299.  Materials  Required.    Enough  bricks  or  pav- 
ing blocks  of  one  kind  so  that  their  total  volume 
will  be  as  nearly  as  possible  equal  to  1000  cubic 
inches,  or  8  per  cent  of  the  cubic  contents  of  the 
rattler.      (Nine,  ten,  or  eleven  will  ordinarily  be 
required.) 

300.  Method  of  Operation.     See  that  the  speci- 
mens are  thoroughly  dried  before  testing.     Weigh 
each  specimen  and  record  the  weight.     Place  the 
bricks  and  all  of  the  cast-iron  shot,  called  for  under 


144  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

"  apparatus  required,"  in  the  rattler,  and  close 
the  cylinder.  Start  the  rattler  using  a  speed  of 
not  less  than  28  nor  more  than  30  revolutions  per 
minute,  and  continue  the  rotation  through  1800 
revolutions.  Remove  the  specimens,  weigh  each, 
and  record  the  weight.  Compute  the  loss  in  terms 
of  the  weight  of  dry  brick. 

301.  Report.  Tabulate  the  data  and  results, 
stating  the  kind  of  brick,  brand  or  name  of  manu- 
facturer, dimensions,  volume,  original  weight  and 
final  weight  of  each,  average  weight  of  specimens 
before  testing,  average  weight  after  testing,  loss  of 
weight  in  pounds,  percentage  loss  of  weight,  and 
any  other  observations  of  interest.  Compare  your 
results  with  specifications  for  paving  brick,  reporting 
the  values  found. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 
TESTS  OF  SAND,  GRAVEL,  AND  STONE. 


PROBLEM  Fi. 

Crushing  Test  of  Stone. 

302.  Object.    This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  crushing  strength  of  the 
stone  tested. 

303.  Apparatus    Required.      A    ioo,ooo-pound 
testing  machine  with  spherical  bearing  block,  and 

•a  good  rule. 

304.  Materials  Required.     Three  or  more  speci- 
mens of  each  kind  of  stone,  in  the  form  of  i^-inch 
cubes,   blotting  or  building  paper,   and  possibly 
some  plaster  of  Paris. 

305.  Method  of  Operation.     Follow  the  instruc- 
tions  given  in  Problem  B2,  omitting  the  use  of 
plaster  of  Paris,  unless  instructed  otherwise. 

306.  Report.    Follow  the  instructions  for  Prob- 
lem B2. 


145 


146  MATERIALS  TESTING   MANUAL 

PROBLEM  F2. 

Abrasion  Test  of  Broken  Stone. 

307.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  resistance  to  abrasion  of 
stone  intended  for  use  in  road  construction. 

308.  Apparatus    Required.     A    good    weighing 
scale,  a  coarse  balance,  a  drying  oven,  an  abrasion 
cylinder  similar  to  Fig.  37,  page  45,  and  a  yg-inch 
mesh  sieve. 

309.  Materials  Required.     At  least  30  pounds 
of  coarsely  broken  stone. 

310.  Method  of  Operation.*    Wash  the  sample 
of  stone  and  dry  it  in  a  drying  oven.     From  the 
dried  stone  select,  as  nearly  as  possible,  50  pieces, 
such  that  the  total  weight  shall  be  within  10  grams 
of  5  kilograms.     Record  the  exact  weight.     Place 
the  sample  in  the  abrasion  cylinder,  and  set  it  in 
rotation  at  the  rate  of  from  30  to  33  revolutions  per 
minute.     Continue    the    rotation    through    10,000 
revolutions.     Remove  the  material  from  the  cylin- 
der, and  screen  it  through  a  y^-inch  mesh  sieve. 
Weigh  the  amount  passing  and  the  amount  re- 
tained, and  compute  the  percentage  of  material 
passing  to  the  total  weight.     Also,  compute  the 

French  coefficient  which  is  -^,  in  which  W  is  the 

*  See  Proceedings  of  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials, 
Vol.  VIII,  page  197. 


TESTS   OF  SAND,   GRAVEL,   AND   STONE      147 

weight  in  grams  of  detritus  under  ^-inch  in  size 
per  kilogram  of  stone  used. 

311.  Report.  Tabulate  the  data  and  results  re- 
porting all  weights,  losses,  the  percentage  of  loss, 
and  the  French  coefficient.  Compare  your  results 
with  results  of  other  tests,  if  such  are  available, 
reporting  the  values  found. 


148  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

PROBLEM  FS. 

Toughness  Test  of  Broken  Stone* 

312.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of   testing   the   toughness   of   broken   stone, 
intended  for  use  in  road  construction. 

313.  Apparatus   Required.     An  impact  testing 
machine,  similar  to  Fig.  34,  page  41. 

314.  Materials  Required.     Three  or  more  speci- 
mens of  each  kind  of  stone,  the  form  of  test  piece 
being  either  a  cylinder  or  cubes,  25  millimeters  in 
diameter  by  25  millimeters  in  height,  cut  perpen- 
dicular to  the  stratification  of  the  rock. 

315.  Method   of   Operation.     Place  one   speci- 
men in  the  machine  under  the  plunger  upon  which 
the  hammer  falls.     Start  the  machine,  allowing  the 
hammer  to  fall  i  centimeter  for  the  first  blow,  2 
centimeters  for  the  second  blow,  3  centimeters  for 
the  third  blow,   and  so  on  until   failure  occurs. 
Record  the  number  of  blows,  and  compute   the 
energy  of  the  last  blow  in  centimeter-grams.     Test 
each  specimen  in  a  similar  manner. 

316.  Report.     Tabulate   the   data   and   results, 
stating  the  kind  of  stone,  form  and  size  of  specimen, 
number  of  blows  and  energy  for  each  specimen,  and 
the  average  number  of  blows  and  average  amount  of 
energy  for  each  kind  of  stone. 

*  See  Proceedings  of  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials, 
Vol.  VIII,  page  199. 


TESTS   OF  SAND,   GRAVEL,  AND   STONE      149 


PROBLEM  F4. 

Specific  Gravity  of  Sand,  Gravel,  and  Broken 
Stone. 

317.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  exhibiting  some  of  the  methods  which  may 
be  used  for  determining  the  specific  gravity  of 
such  materials  as  sand,  gravel,  and  stone. 

318.  Apparatus  Required.     Le   Chatelier  flask, 
glass  rod,  pipette,   liter  or  5oo-cubic    centimeter 
graduated  cylinder,  Harvard  Trip  balance,  triple- 
beam  balance,*  ordinary  pail,|  pans,  and  a  good 
platform  balance. 

319.  Materials    Required.     Samples    of    sand, 
gravel,  and  broken  stone,  and  some  water. 

320.  Method    of    Operation.     Fill    the    specific 
gravity  flask  to  the  mark  below  the  bulb  with 
water,  and  after  the  water  from  the  sides  of  the 
tube  has  run  down,  bring  the  surface  exactly  to  the 
mark  by  means  of  the  pipette.     On  the  triple-beam 
balance  weigh  out  55  grams  of  one  kind  of  sand. 
Pour  the  sand  slowly  into  the  specific  gravity  flask, 
using  the  glass  rod  to  prevent  clogging.     Read  the 
volume  displaced.     The   specific   gravity  will   be 
equal  to  the  weight  in  grams  divided  by  the  volume 

*  See  Fig.  10,  p.  15. 

t  A  deep  can  is  better  than  a  pail,  since  there  will  be  a  smaller 
proportionate  error  in  the  result  for  a  given  error  in  observation 
of  height  of  surface. 


150  MATERIALS   TESTING  MANUAL 

in  cubic  centimeters  displaced.  To  clean  the  flask 
agitate  and  rotate  the  flask  to  bring  the  sand  into 
suspension,  then  turn  the  flask  upside  down,  and 
allow  the  contents  to  run  out. 

321.  Fill  the  graduated  cylinder  about  half  full 
of  gravel.     Pour  the  gravel  into  a  pan  and  deter- 
mine its  weight  carefully  by  the  Harvard  balance. 
Fill  the  graduated  cylinder  half  full  of  water,  noting 
the  exact  volume.     Pour  the  gravel  into  the  water 
in  the  cylinder  and  observe  the  total  volume.     The 
difference  in  the  readings  is  the  volume  displaced. 
Compute  the  specific  gravity  in  the  same  manner 
as  for  sand. 

322.  Place  the  empty  pail  upon  the  platform  scale 
and  weigh  it.     Fill  the  pail  about  three-fourths  full 
of  broken  stone  and  observe  the  weight.     Then 
pour  the  stone  out  of  the  pail,  fill  the  pail  level  full 
with  water  and  observe  the  weight.     Pour  out  some 
of  the  water,  place  the  weighed  stone  in  the  pail,  fill 
the  pail  level  full  with  water  and  observe  the  total 
weight.     From  the  observed  weights  deduct  the 
weight  of  pail  to  obtain  the  weight  of  water  with 
the  pail  filled,  weight  of  stone  used,  and  weight  of 
stone  and  water  mixed.     Subtract  the  weight  of 
stone  from  the  weight  of  the  mixture  to  obtain  the 
weight  of  water  in  the  mixture.     Then  the  differ- 
ence between  the  weight  of  water  for  the  pail  filled 
and  the  weight  of  water  in  the  mixture  is  the  weight 
of  water  displaced,  that  is  the  weight  of  a  volume 
of  water  equal  to  the  actual  volume  of  stone.    The 


TESTS  OF  SAND,   GRAVEL,   AND   STONE      151 

specific  gravity  of  the  stone  is  the  ratio  of  the 
weight  of  the  stone  to  the  weight  of  an  equal  volume 
of  water.  This  method  could  have  been  used  for 
sand  or  gravel,  and  it  has  the  advantage  that  it 
can  often  be  used  where  laboratory  equipment  is 
not  available. 

323.  Report.  Tabulate  the  data  and  results, 
stating  all  observations  of  volume  and  weight,  and 
all  computed  results.  Compare  your  results  with 
values  given  in  your  textbooks,  reporting  the  values 
found. 


152  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

PROBLEM  FS. 

Percentage  of  Voids  in  Sand,  Gravel,  and  Broken 
Stone. 

324.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  showing  some  of  the  methods  which  may 
be  used  in  determining  the  percentage  of  voids  in 
sand,  gravel,  and  broken  stone. 

325.  Apparatus  Required.     Liter  graduated  cyl- 
inder, an  ordinary  pail,  pans,  and  a  good  platform 
scale. 

326.  Materials  '  Required.     Samples    of    sand, 
gravel,  and  broken  stone,  and  some  water. 

327.  Method  of  Operation.     Fill  the  graduated 
cylinder  half  full  of  one  kind  of  sand  or  gravel, 
and  observe  the  volume,  first  as  poured  in,  and  then 
after  shaking  to  settle  the  mass.     Pour  the  sand 
out  into  a  pan,  and  fill  the  cylinder  half  full  of 
water,    observing    the    exact    volume.     Pour    the 
measured  sand  into  the  water  and  observe  the  total 
volume.     The  difference  between  the  two  readings 
of  the  water  level  is  the  volume  displaced.     The 
volume  observed  for  the  dry  sand  minus  the  volume 
displaced  is  the  volume  of  the  voids.     The  ratio  of 
the  volume  of  voids  to  the  volume  of  dry  sand  is  the 
percentage  of  voids.     Compute  the  percentage  of 
voids  both  for  the  sand  loose  and  for  it  settled. 
Test  all  of  the  samples  of  sand  and  gravel  in  a 
similar  manner. 


TESTS   OF   SAND,   GRAVEL,   AND   STONE      153 

328.  Place  the  empty  pail  upon  the  platform  scale 
and  observe  its  weight.     Fill  the  pail  with  stone 
and  observe  the  total  weight.     Empty  the  pail, 
fill  it  with  water,  and  observe  the  weight.     The 
weight  of  water  in  pounds  divided  by  62.5  is  the 
volume  of  contents  in  cubic  feet.     The  weight  of 
the  stone  divided  by  62.5  times  the  specific  gravity  * 
is  the  volume  of  solids  in  cubic  feet.     The  volume  of 
the  pail  minus  the  volume  of  the  solids  of  the  stone 
is  the  volume  of  voids.     To  obtain  the  percentage 
of   voids  divide  the  volume  of   the  voids  by  the 
volume  of  the  pail.     This  method  may  be  used  for 
sand  or  gravel  as  well  as  for  stone. 

329.  Report.     Tabulate   the   data   and   results, 
stating  all  observations  of  volumes  and  weights, 
and  all  computed  results. 

*  If  the  specific  gravity  is  unknown  it  may  be  determined  as 
explained  in  paragraph  322,  p.  150.  For  ordinary  purposes  the 
following  values  of  specific  gravity  may  be  used:  sand  or  gravel, 
2.65;  limestone,  2.53;  sandstone,  2.22;  granite,  2.67;  marble,  2.72; 
and  slate,  2.78.  These  values  are  taken  from  Baker's  Masonry, 
pages  6  and  91,  1909  edition. 


154  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

PROBLEM  F6. 

Sieve  Analysis  of  Sand,  Gravel,  and  Broken  Stone. 

330.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  investigating  the  absolute  and  relative  sizes 
of  particles  of  the  materials  tested. 

331.  Apparatus  Required.     Sieves  of  the  follow- 
ing mesh:  No.  100,  No.  70  or  No.  80,  No.  50,  No.  30, 
No.    20,    No.    10,   J-inch,    J-inch,    f-inch,    i-inch, 
i^-inch,  and  2-inch;  fine  balance,  triple-beam  bal- 
ance, and  Harvard  balance. 

332.  Materials    Required.      Samples    of    sand, 
gravel,  and  broken  stone,  logarithmic  coordinate 
paper,  and  ordinary  coordinate  paper. 

333.  Method  of  Operation.     On  the  triple-beam 
balance  weigh  out  100  grams  of  sand,  screen  it 
through  the  J-inch  sieve,  and  weigh  the  amount 
retained    and    the    amount    passing.     Place    the 
amount  passing  on  the  No.  10  sieve  and  repeat  the 
operation.     Continue   in    this    manner    to    screen 
the  sample  through  the  remainder  of  the   finer- 
meshed  sieves.     From  the  last  grains  passing  each 
sieve  count  out  100  particles,  and  weigh  each  hun- 
dred on  the  fine  balance.     Compute  the  average 
diameter*  of  each  size,  assuming  the  particles  to 
be  spheres. 

6  W 

,  in  which  d  =  diameter  in  cm.,  W  = 


IOOTT  (S.G.) 

weight  in  grams  of  100  grains  of  sand,  S.G.  =  specific  gravity  of 
material,  which  may  be  determined  as  explained  in  Problem  F4, 
if  not  already  known. 


TESTS  OF  SAND,   GRAVEL,   AND  STONE      155 

334.  Screen  and  weigh  the  gravel  as  directed 
for  sand,  but  begin  with  as  coarse  a  sieve  as  will 
retain  any  of  the  pebbles  and  use  1000  instead  of 
100  grams.     Weigh  the  material  on  the  Harvard 
balance,  instead  of  the  triple-beam  balance.     The 
determination    of    diameter    of   particles    by    the 
method  explained  for  sand  will  not  be  required 
unless  special  instructions  are  given  to  that  effect. 

335.  Screen    and    weigh    the   broken    stone   as 
directed  for  gravel. 

336.  Report.     Plot  the  results  for  the  analysis 
of  the  sand  upon  logarithmic  coordinate  paper, 
using  diameter  of  grains  in  millimeters  as  abscissas 
and  percentage  by  weight  as  ordinates.     Connect 
the  points  with  a  curve.     Observe  the  points  at 
which  the  curve  intersects  the  10  per  cent  line  and 
the  60  per  cent  line.     The  diameter  of  grains  corre- 
sponding to  the  first  point  is  the  effective  size,  and 
the  ratio  of  the  diameter  for  second  point  to  the 
effective  size  is  the  uniformity  coefficient.     Tabu- 
late the  data  and  results  obtained,  and  hand  in 
upon  a  separate  sheet  all  of  your  numerical  compu- 
tations, being  careful  to  arrange  your  work  so  that 
it  can  be  easily  understood.     For  the  sand,  the 
gravel,  and  the  stone  plot  curves  upon  ordinary 
coordinate  paper,  using  as  abscissas  diameter  of 
particles  in  inches,  and  for  ordinates  percentages  by 
weight.     In  this  case  the  diameter  of  particles  may 
be  taken  directly  from  the  sizes  of  openings  of  the 
sieves. 


156  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

PROBLEM  Fy. 

Proportions  for  Concrete  Aggregates. 

337.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  proper  proportion  for  given 
samples  of  sand,  gravel,  and  broken  stone  to  be 
used  as  the  aggregate  for  concrete. 

338.  Apparatus  Required.     A  pail  or  large  can, 
pans,  and  a  good  platform  scale. 

339.  Materials   Required.     A   supply   of   sand, 
gravel,  and  broken  stone,  for  each  of  which  the 
percentage  of  voids  *  has  been  determined,  and  for 
each  of  which  a  sieve  analysisf  has  been  made. 

340.  Method  of  Operation.     Mix  together  equal 
parts  by  weight  of  gravel  {  and  stone,  also,  one  part 
of  gravel  to  two  parts  of  stone,  and  one  part  of 
gravel  to  three  parts  of  stone.     Make  a  fourth 
mixture  of  sand,  gravel,  and  stone,  the  proportions 
being  determined  by  investigation  of  the  sieve- 
analysis  curves. §     Upon  the  coordinate  paper  on 
which   the   sieve-analysis  curve  for  each   of   the 
materials  to  be  used  is  plotted,  draw  a  parabola,  || 

*  See  Problem  F$.  f  See  Problem  F6. 

t  If  the  gravel  is  very  coarse  use  a  mixture  of  one  part  of 
sand  to  two  parts  of  gravel  for  the  first  three  mixtures. 

§  The  method  used  is  that  devised  by  Wm.  B.  Fuller,  a  de- 
scription of  which  is  given  in  Taylor  and  Thompson's  "  Concrete 
Plain  and  Reinforced"  (1905  edition),  pp.  183-215. 

||  If  so  instructed  use  the  elliptical  curve,  as  explained  in  Trans- 
actions of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  Vol.  LIX,  p.  90, 
in  place  of  the  parabolic  curve. 


TESTS   OF  SAND,   GRAVEL,   AND   STONE      157 

beginning  at  the  zero  of  the  ordinates  and  passing 
through  the  point  at  the  intersection  of  the  line  for 
the  largest  size  of  stone  with  the  100  per  cent  line. 
Find  the  point  on  the  parabolic  curve  vertically 
above  the  point  at  which  the  stone  curve  crosses 
the  zero  per  cent  line,  and  observe  the  percentage 
value  corresponding  to  the  intersection.*  The 
amount  observed  subtracted  from  100  will  give  the 
percentage  of  the  final  mixture,  which  should  be 
stone.  For  the  portions  of  the  curves  for  sand  and 
gravel,  the  horizontal  projections  of  which  overlap, 
observe  which  curve  has  the  larger  vertical  pro- 
jection. If  the  sand  curve  has  the  larger  vertical 
projection,  use  the  upper  end  of  the  sand  curve  as  a 
starting  point,  otherwise  use  the  lower  end  of  the 
gravel  curve,  or  take  the  mean  of  the  results  by 
both  methods.  From  the  starting  point  follow 
the  vertical  to  its  intersection  with  the  parabolic 
curve,  and  also  to  its  intersection  with  remaining 
curve.  Compute  the  ratio  of  the  distance  along  the 
vertical  between  the  gravel  curve  and  the  parabola 
to  the  distance  between  the  gravel  curve  and  the 
sand  curve.  The  ratio  found  will  be  the  percentage 
of  the  total  mixture  which  should  be  sand.  The 
remaining  percentage  of  the  total  mixture  should 
be  gravel.  Mix  together  a  sample  of  aggregate, 

*  If  the  gravel  and  stone  curves  overlap  to  any  considerable 
extent,  the  overlapping  portions  can  be  treated  in  a  manner 
similar  to  that  explained  in  this  problem  for  the  sand  and  gravel 
curves. 


158  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

using  the  proportions  determined  by  the  curves. 
Compute  the  curve  which  should  be  obtained  for 
the  mixture,  and  check  your  results  by  screening  a 
portion  of  the  mixed  sample  as  explained  in  Prob- 
lem F6.  For  each  of  the  four  mixtures  of  aggre- 
gate, determine  the  percentage  of  voids  as  explained 
in  paragraph  328,  page  153. 

341.  Report.  Tabulate  the  data  and  results, 
stating  all  quantities  observed.  Hand  in  the 
curves  and  all  of  your  computations. 


CHAPTER   IX. 
TESTS   OF   ASPHALT. 


PROBLEM  Gi. 

Purity  of  Asphalt. 

342.  Object.     The  object  of  this  test  is  to  de- 
termine the  percentage  of  material  in  the  samples 
submitted  which  will  not  be  dissolved  by  various 
solvents. 

343.  Apparatus  Required.     Fine  balance,  Gooch 
crucible  with  long-fiber  amphibole  asbestos  filters, 
stand  for  supporting  crucible,  evaporating  dish,  and 
flasks. 

344.  Materials    Required.     Small    samples    of 
pure*  bitumen,  free  from  water,  carbon  disulphide, 
carbon  tetrachloride,  and  naphtha. 

345.  Method  of  Operation.     On  the  fine  balance 
weigh  out  two  samples  of  i  gram  each,  and  one 
sample  of  J  gram,  of  the  material  to  be  tested. 
Place  a  i-gram  sample  in  a  flask  with  100  cubic 
centimeters  of  carbon  disulphide,  another  i-gram 
sample  in  a  flask  with   200  cubic  centimeters  of 
carbon  tetrachloride,  and  the  |-gram  sample,  finely 
divided,  in  a  flask  with  150  cubic  centimeters  of 

*  Not  mixed  with  sand. 


160  MATERIALS  TESTING   MANUAL 

naphtha.  Record  the  specific  gravity  of  the  naph- 
tha. Cork  the  flasks  loosely,  shake  them  from 
time  to  time,  and  then  set  them  away  until  the 
next  laboratory  period.  (The  interval  should  be 
at  least  15  hours.)  At  that  time  filter  the  con- 
tents of  each  flask  using  the  Gooch  crucible  and 
filter,  having  first  weighed  the  crucible.  Allow  the 
residue  of  each  to  stand  until  dry,  warming  it  to 
assist  in  evaporating  any  remaining  solvent.  Re- 
turn the  used  solvents  to  vessels  kept  for  that 
purpose,  in  order  that  they  may  be  distilled  for 
future  use.  Weigh  the  crucible  and  residue  and 
compute  the  weight  of  residue,  for  each  solvent. 
Place  i  gram  of  divided  bitumen  on  a  weighed 
Gooch  crucible  and  filter,  and  wash  with  carbon 
disulphide  until  the  washings  are  clear.  Dry  the 
filter,  weigh  it,  and  compute  the  residue  as  before. 
346.  Report.  Tabulate  the  data  and  results, 
stating  all  weights,  computations,  and  observations. 
Compare  your  results  with  specifications,  if  any  are 
at  hand,  and  report  the  requirements  found. 


TESTS   OF  ASPHALT  l6l 

PROBLEM  G2. 

Percentage  of  Bitumen  in  Paving  Mixtures. 

347.  Object.    This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  amount  of  bitumen  present 
in  the  given  samples  of  asphaltic  paving  mixtures. 

348.  Apparatus  Required.     Fine  balance,  Gooch 
crucible  with  long-fiber  amphibole  asbestos  filters, 
stand  for  supporting  crucible,  evaporating  dish,  and 
flasks. 

349.  Materials  Required.     Samples  of  dry  as- 
phaltic paving  mixtures,  and  carbon  disulphide, 

350.  Method  of  Operation.*    Observe  and  record 
the  weight  of  a  i5o-cubic-centimeter  Erlenmeyer 
flask.     Weigh  out  from  i  to  10  grams  of  a  sample 
to  be  tested,  crush  it  and  place  it  in  the  flask 
with  100  cubic  centimeters  of  carbon  disulphide. 
Loosely  cork  the  flask,  shake  it  from  time  to  time 
until   practically  all   of   the  particles  have  been 
broken  up,  using  glass  beads  in  the  flask,  if  de- 
sired, to  assist  in  breaking  up  the  lumps.      The 
flask  is  then  set  aside  for  not  less  than  15  hours 
(or  until  the  next  laboratory  period,  unless  other- 
wise instructed).    At  the  end  of  this  time  the  con- 
tents of  the  flask  are  to  be  decanted  off  upon  a 

*  The  method  here  used  is  the  Rapid  Method  for  the  Deter- 
mination of  Material  in  Bituminous  Road  Compounds  Soluble  in 
Cold  Carbon  Disulphide  as  recommended  by  Committee  H  of  the 
American  Society  for  Testing  Materials,  given  in  Proceedings  of 
the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials,  Vol.  IX,  page  222. 


1 62  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

weighed  Gooch  crucible  with  a  long-fiber  amphibole 
asbestos  filter.  The  residue  in  the  flask  is  then  to 
be  washed  with  50  cubic  centimeters  of  carbon  di- 
sulphide, allowed  to  settle,  and  decanted  as  before. 
The  insoluble  matter  in  the  flask  is  then  to  be 
placed  upon  the  filter  and  washed  with  carbon 
disulphide  until  the  washings  are  practically  color- 
less. Then  dry  the  filter  and  contents  at  125°  C., 
and  cool  and  weigh  it.  Should  any  residue  remain 
in  the  flask,  it  is  to  be  dried  and  weighed,  and  the 
weight  of  residue  added  to  the  weight  of  residue  in 
the  crucible.  Also,  burn  off  the  filtrate  in  an  evapo- 
rating dish,  and  with  a  Bunsen  burner  ignite  the 
residue  to  an  ash  and  weigh  the  ash.  Add  the 
weight  of  ash  to  the  weight  of  insoluble  residue. 
The  weight  of  the  total  residue  deducted  from  that 
of  the  original  material  gives  the  weight  of  bitumen 
soluble  in  cold  carbon  disulphide.  In  this  case  the 
percentage  of  insoluble  residue,  determined  as  above, 
minus  that  of  any  ash  which  may  be  found  by 
igniting  a  separate  sample,  is  reported  as  free  car- 
bon. This  test  shall  be  carried  on  at  a  temperature 
of  from  20°  to  25°  C. 

351.  Report.  Tabulate  the  data  and  results, 
stating  all  weights,  computations,  and  observations. 
Compare  your  results  with  the  specifications  under 
which  the  asphaltic  mixtures  were  prepared,  if  such 
are  available. 


TESTS   OF   ASPHALT  163 

PROBLEM  03. 

Penetration  Test  of  Asphalt* 

352.  Object.  This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  consistency  of  the  samples 
tested,  as  indicated  by  the  penetration  of  a  needle. 


Fig.  58.  —  Penetrometers  for  Testing  Asphalt 

353.  Apparatus  Required.  Penetrometer,  simi- 
lar to  one  of  those  shown  in  Fig.  58,  having  a  No.  2 

*  The  method  here  used  is  in  accordance  with  the  Method  for 
the  Determination  of  the  Consistency  of  Bitumen,  recommended 
by  Committee  H  of  the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials, 
for  which  see  Vol.  IX,  page  223,  of  Proceedings  of  that  society. 


164  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

needle  under  a  weight  of  100  grams,  basin  or  recep- 
tacle for  use  in  immersing  specimen  in  water,  and 
thermometer. 

354.  Materials  Required.     Samples  of  pure  as- 
phalt in  tin  boxes  J  inch  to  i  inch  deep  by  2§  inches 
diameter,  some  water  and  possibly  some  ice. 

355.  Method  of  Operation.     Fill  the  basin  with 
water,  note  its  temperature,  and  if  necessary  add 
hot  water  or  ice  water  to  bring  its  temperature  to 
25°  C.  (77°  F.).     Place  one  of  the  samples  in  posi- 
tion under  the  needle  of  the  penetrometer,  with  the 
sample  immersed  in  water.     See  that  the  water  is 
at  the  temperature  stated,  and  allow  the  sample  to 
remain  immersed  long  enough  to  come  to  the  tem- 
perature of  the  water,  before  testing  the  penetra- 
tion.*    Then  bring  the  point  of  the  needle  and  the 
surface  of  the  sample  in  contact  and  determine  the 
penetration  in  5  seconds  of  time.     Record  the  num- 
ber of  degrees  on  the  scale.     Test  each  sample  in  a 
similar  manner. 

356.  Report.     Tabulate   the   data  and  results, 
stating   all   observations.     Compare  your   results 
with  specifications  for  asphalt,  if  such  are  avail- 
able, and  report  the  comparison. 

*  If  possible  place  the  samples  in  the  water  some  time  before 
going  ahead  with  the  test,  in  order  that  they  may  be  at  the  proper 
temperature  at  the  time  desired. 


TESTS   OF   ASPHALT  165 

PROBLEM  04. 

Residual  Coke  in  Asphalt* 

357.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  purpose 
of  determining  the  amount  of  fixed  carbon  in  the 
given  samples  of  asphalt. 

358.  Apparatus  Required.     Fine  balance,  plati- 
num triangle  and  support,  and  platinum  crucible 
weighing  20  to  30  grams  and  having  a  tight-fitting 
cover. 

359.  Materials  Required.     Samples  of  pure  as- 
phalt. 

360.  Method  of  Operation.     Place  i  gram  of  one 
sample,  free  from  water,  in  the  platinum  crucible 
and  see  that  the  cover  is  tight.     Place  the  crucible 
on  the  platinum  triangle,  with  the  bottom  6  to  8 
centimeters  above  the  top  of  the  burner.     See  that 
the  flame  is  fully  20  centimeters  high  when  burning 
free,  and  that  the  flame  is  free  from  draughts.     The 
upper  surface  of  the  cover  should  burn  clear,  but 
the  under  surface  should  remain  covered  with  car- 
bon.    Continue  the  heating  for  7  minutes.     Weigh 
the  crucible  to  determine  the  residue.     The  residue 
minus  the  small  impurity  of  ash  in  the  pure  bitumen 
is  the  fixed  carbon,  which  should  be  calculated  to 

*  The  method  here  used  is  in  accordance  with  Method  for  the 
Determination  of  Residual  Coke  in  Bituminous  Compounds, 
recommended  by  Committee  H  of  the  American  Society  for 
Testing  Materials,  for  which  see  Vol.  IX,  page  223,  of  Proceed- 
ings of  that  society. 


1 66  MATERIALS   TESTING  MANUAL 

ioo  per  cent  with  the  volatile  hydrocarbons,  ex- 
cluding the  inorganic  matter.  Test  each  sample  in 
a  similar  manner. 

361.   Report.     Tabulate   the   data   and   results, 
stating  all  weights,  observations,  and  computations. 


TESTS   OF   ASPHALT  167 

PROBLEM  GS. 

Loss  on  Heating.* 

362.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  amount  of  volatile  matter 
in  the  given  samples,  which  can  be  expelled  by 
heating. 

363.  Apparatus  Required.     Hot-air  oven,   fine 
balance,   and  all  of  the   equipment  required  for 
Problem  63. 

364.  Materials    Required.      Samples    of    pure 
water- free  asphalt  in  tin  boxes  i  inch  deep  by  2§ 
inches  diameter,  containing  50  grams  each,  and 
water. 

365.  Method  of  Operation.     Determine  the  pen- 
etration for  each  sample,  as  directed  in  Problem 
03.     Then  weigh  each  sample  on  the  balance,  and 
place  it  in  the  hot-air  oven.     Raise  the  tempera- 
ture to  170°  C.,  and  maintain  this  temperature  for 
5  hours.     At  no  time  shall  the  temperature  of  the 
oven  vary  more  than  2°  C.  from  170°  C.     When 
the  sample  is  cooled  to  normal  temperature,  it  is  to 
be  weighed,  and  the  percentage  of  loss  computed. 
Then  make  another  determination  of  the  penetra- 

*  The  method  here  given  is  in  accordance  with  Method  for 
the  Determination  of  the  Loss  on  Heating  of  Oil  and  Asphaltic 
Compounds  recommended  by  Committee  H  of  the  American 
Society  for  Testing  Materials,  for  which  see  Vol.  IX,  page  223,  of 
Proceedings  of  that  society. 


168  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

tion  for  each  sample,  as  directed  in  Problem  63. 
Compute  the  loss  in  penetration. 

366.  Report.  Tabulate  the  data  and  results, 
stating  all  weights,  computations,  observations,  the 
loss  by  volatilization,  and  the  loss  in  penetration. 


TESTS   OF  ASPHALT 


169 


PROBLEM  G6. 

Ductility  of  Asphalt. 

367.  Object.     This  experiment  is  for  the  purpose 
of  determining  the  ductility  of  the  given  samples 
of  asphalt. 

368.  Apparatus  Required.     Flasks,  a  still,   20- 
mesh   sieve,    5o-mesh    sieve,    amalgamated    brass 
plates,    briquette    molds    similar 

to  Fig.  59,  a  ductility  machine, 
steam  bath,  and  the  apparatus 
required  for  Problems  Gi  and  03. 
A  ductility  machine  is  shown  in 
Fig.  60,  for  which  the  pull  is  hor- 
izontal. For  very  ductile  mate- 
rials a  better  form  of  machine  is 
one  in  which  the  pull  is  vertical.* 

369.  Materials  Required.  Sam- 
ples of  asphaltic  cement,  carbon 
disulphide,  and  refined  liquid  as- 
phalt free  from  water  and  from 
light   oils   volatile   at   less    than 
250°  F. 

370.  Method    of    Operation,  f 
Test  the  purity  of  each  sample 

*  For  a  description  and  illustration  of  such  a  machine,  see 
"  A  Machine  for  Testing  the  Ductility  of  Bituminous  Cements," 
by  Francis  P.  Smith,  in  Proceedings  of  the  American  Society  for 
Testing  Materials,  Vol.  IX,  page  594. 

t  The  method  here  used  is  that  given  by  Francis  P.  Smith, 
in  the  article  noted  in  the  preceding  footnote. 


ig'  59-  —  Briquette 
Mold  for  Asphalt 


170  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

to  determine  the  percentage  of  material  soluble  in 
carbon  disulphide,  as  explained  in  Problem  Gi. 
Classify  the  samples  as  follows:  Class  i,  asphalts 
containing  over  96  per  cent  soluble  matter  and 
free  from  lumps  of  inert  bitumen;  Class  2,  asphalts 
containing  less  than  96  per  cent  soluble  matter 


Fig.  60.  —  Ductility  Machine 

and  free  from  lumps  of  inert  bitumen;  Class  3, 
asphalts  which  are  not  homogeneous,  i.e.,  contain- 
ing lumps  of  hard  bitumen  which,  although  soluble 
in  carbon  disulphide,  are  insoluble  in  the  softer 
bitumen,  even  in  a  molten  condition.  Asphalts 
coming  under  the  first  classification  need  no  pre- 
liminary treatment. 

371.  To  prepare  asphalts  of  Class  2  for  use,  pro- 
ceed as  follows:  take  a  sufficient  quantity  of  one 
material  to  yield  150  grams,  after  treatment. 
Treat  the  sample  with  carbon  disulphide  in  an 
Erlenmeyer  flask  for  2  or  3  hours,  shaking  the 
flask  occasionally  until  none  of  the  asphalt  adheres 
to  the  sides  or  bottom,  after  which  it  is  to  be  set 
aside  for  24  hours.  Then  decant  the  solvent  from 


TESTS   OF   ASPHALT  171 

the  flask,  into  a  second  flask,  and  again  treat  the 
residue  with  more  carbon  disulphide,  shaking, 
allowing  to  subside,  and  decanting  as  before. 
Continue  until  the  solvent  is  practically  colorless. 
Allow  the  combined  solutions  to  stand  for  at 
least  24  hours  after  the  last  addition,  and  then 
decant  off  the  solvent  into  the  still,  and  distill 
until  only  sufficient  solvent  remains  to  keep  the 
extracted  bitumen  liquid.  Pour  the  residue  into 
a  large  evaporating  dish  and  place  upon  the  steam 
bath,  to  evaporate  as  much  as  possible  of  the 
remaining  solvent.  To  facilitate  the  removal  of 
the  last  particles  of  carbon  disulphide  from  the 
bitumen,  while  on  the  steam  bath,  it  should  be 
stirred  from  time  to  time.  After  this  treatment, 
incorporate  |  to  i  cubic  centimeter  of  water  into 
the  bitumen  and,  while  stirring  the  material  contin- 
ually with  a  thermometer,  heat  the  sample  over  a 
burner  until  all  foaming  ceases.  Next  place  the 
sample  in  a  hot-air  oven  and  maintain  it  at  a  tem- 
perature of  300°  F.  for  30  minutes.  (See  that  the 
temperature  never  exceeds  300°  F.) 

372.  To  prepare  asphalt  of  Class  3,  for  use,  pro- 
ceed as  follows:  Heat  the  sample  in  an  air  bath  at 
a  temperature  between  300°  and  350°  F.,  together 
with  a  2o-mesh  sieve  and  a  5o-mesh  sieve.  When 
the  material  is  in  a  thoroughly  molten  condition,  it 
is  to  be  first  strained  through  the  heated  20-mesh 
sieve,  and  then  through  the  5o-mesh  sieve,  allow- 
ing it  to  run  by  gravity.  If  the  material  thus 


172  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

obtained  contains  less  than  96  per  cent  of  bitumen 
soluble  in  carbon  disulphide,  it  must  be  treated  as 
materials  under  Class  2,  otherwise  it  is  ready  for 
use. 

373.  Determine  the  penetration  for  each  sample, 
as  explained  in  Problem  03,  using  a  Dow  pene- 
trometer.     If  the  material  is  not  of  proper  con- 
sistency, i.e.,   50  penetration  at  77°  F.,  it  is  to 
be  softened  with  the  liquid  asphalt.*    With  the 
material   as   thus  prepared   mold   three   or   more 
briquettes  with  each  asphalt  to  be  tested.     Before 
molding,  examine  the  molds  and  the  brass  plate 
to  see  that  the  surface  of  the  plate  and  the  inner 
surfaces  of  the  removable  pieces  of  the  molds  are 
well   amalgamated,    to   prevent   adhesion.     Place 
the  molds  on  the  plate  and  fasten  the  parts  of  each 
mold  together  with  a  clamp  or  rubber  band.     Melt 
each  sample  of  asphalt,  and  with  it  fill  three  or 
more  molds,  while  the  material  is  in  a  molten  state. 
Add  a  slight  excess  to  each  briquette  to  allow  for 
shrinkage  on  cooling.    After  the  briquettes  are  cool, 
smooth  each  off  level  by  means  of  a  heated  palette 
knife. 

374.  When  ready  to  test  the  briquettes,  remove 
the  two  side  pieces  of  one  briquette,  leaving  the 
asphalt  firmly  attached  to  the  two  ends  of  the 
mold,  which  serve  as  clips.     Immerse  each  bri- 
quette in  water,  the  temperature  of  which  is  to  be 

*  In  practice  the  flux  used  should  be  the  same  as  will  be  used 
in  the  work. 


TESTS  OF  ASPHALT  173 

maintained  at  77°  F.  for  at  least  30  minutes,  or 
until  the  whole  mass  of  bitumen  is  at  that  tem- 
perature. Examine  the  ductility  machine  to 
determine  the  rate  of  motion  of  the  hand  wheel 
which  will  cause  the  ends  of  the  briquette  to  be 
pulled  apart  at  the  rate  of  5  centimeters  per  min- 
ute. Then  place  one  briquette  in  position  in  the 
machine,  set  the  pointer  to  read  zero,  and  pull  the 
briquette  apart  at  the  determined  speed.  Note 
the  reading  of  the  pointer  at  the  instant  that  thread 
of  bitumen  breaks,  to  obtain  the  ductility  of  the 
sample  expressed  in  centimeters.  Test  each  bri- 
quette in  a  similar  manner. 

375.  Report.  0  Tabulate  the  data  and  results, 
stating  all  operations,  observations,  and  computa- 
tions. Compare  your  results  with  any  data  of 
other  tests  which  may  be  available,  and  report  the 
comparison. 


APPENDICES 


APPENDIX  I. 

PROGRESS  REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  UNIFORM 
TESTS  OF  CEMENT  OF  THE  AMERICAN  SOCIETY 
OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERS.* 

PRESENTED  AT  THE  ANNUAL  MEETING  JANUARY  20,  1909. 


SAMPLING. 

1.  SELECTION  OF  SAMPLE.    The  selection  of  the  sample 
for  testing  is  a  detail  that  must  be  left  to  the  discretion  of 
the  engineer;  the  number  and  the  quantity  to  be  taken  from 
each  package  will  depend  largely  on  the  importance  of  the 
work,  the  number  of  tests  to  be  made,  and  the  facilities  for 
making  them. 

2.  The  sample  shall  be  a  fair  average  of  the  contents  of 
the  package;  it  is  recommended  that,  where  conditions  per- 
mit, one  barrel  in  every  ten  be  sampled. 

3.  Samples  should  be  passed  through   a  sieve  having 
twenty  meshes  per  linear  inch,  in  order  to  break  up  lumps 
and  remove  foreign  material;  this  is  also  a  very  effective 
method  for  mixing  them  together  in  order  to  obtain  an 
average.    For  determining  the  characteristics  of  a  shipment 
of  cement,  the  individual  samples  may  be  mixed  and  the 
average  tested;  where  time  will  permit,  however,  it  is  recom- 
mended that  they  be  tested  separately. 

4.  METHOD  OF  SAMPLING.     Cement  in  barrels  should 
be  sampled  through  a  hole  made  in  the  center  of  one  of  the 
staves,  midway  between  the  heads,  or  in  the  head,  by  means 

*  Authorized   Reprint   from    Proceedings   of   the    American 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  Vol.  35,  No.  2,  Feb.,  1909. 

177 


178  MATERIALS  TESTING   MANUAL 

of  an  auger  or  a  sampling  iron  similar  to  that  used  by  sugar 
inspectors.  If  in  bags,  it  should  be  taken  from  surface  to 
center. 

CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS. 

5.  SIGNIFICANCE.     Chemical  analysis  may  render  valu- 
able service  in  the  detection  of  adulteration  of  cement  with 
considerable  amounts  of  inert  material,   such  as  slag  or 
ground  limestone.     It  is  of  use,  also,  in  determining  whether 
certain  constituents,  believed  to  be  harmful  when  in  excess 
of  a  certain  percentage,  as  magnesia  and   sulphuric  an- 
hydride, are  present  in  inadmissible  proportions. 

6.  The  determination  of  the  principal  constituents   of 
cement  —  silica,    alumina,  iron  oxide,  and   lime  —  is  not 
conclusive  as  an  indication  of  quality.     Faulty  character  of 
cement  results  more  frequently  from  imperfect  preparation 
of  the  raw  material  or  defective  burning  than  from  incorrect 
proportions  of  the  constituents.     Cement  made  from  very 
finely -ground  material,  and  thoroughly  burned,  may  contain 
much  more  lime  than  the  amount  usually  present  and  still 
be  perfectly  sound.     On  the  other  hand,  cements  low  in  lime 
may,  on  account  of  careless  preparation  of  the  raw  material, 
be  of  dangerous  character.     Further,  the  ash  of  the  fuel 
used  in  burning  may  so  greatly  modify  the  composition  of 
the  product  as  largely  to  destroy  the  significance  of  the  results 
of  analysis. 

7.  METHOD.    As  a  method  to  be  followed  for  the  analysis 
of  cement,  that  proposed  by  the  Committee  on  Uniformity 
in   the   Analysis  '  of   Materials   for   the   Portland  Cement 
Industry,  of  the  New  York  Section  of  the  Society  for  Chem- 
ical Industry,  and  published  in  Engineering  News,  Vol.  50, 
page  60,  1903,  and  the  Engineering  Record,  Vol.  48,  page  49, 
1903,  is  recommended. 


APPENDIX  I 


179 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 

8.  SIGNIFICANCE.    The   specific   gravity   of   cement   is 
lowered  by  underburning,  adulteration,  and  hydration,  but 
the  adulteration  must  be  in  considerable  quantity  to  affect 
the  results  appreciably. 

9.  Inasmuch  as  the  differences  in  specific   gravity  are 
usually  very  small,  great  care  must  be  exercised  in  making 
the  determination. 

10.  APPARATUS  AND  METHOD.    The  determination  of  spe- 
cific gravity  is  most  conveniently  made  with  Le  Chatelier's 


Fig.  61.  —  Le  Chatelier's  Specific  Gravity  Apparatus 

apparatus.  This  consists  of  a  flask  (Z>),  Fig.  61,  of  120  cu. 
cm.  (7.32  cu.  ins.)  capacity,  the  neck  of  which  is  about 
20  cm.  (7.87  ins.)  long;  in  the  middle  of  this  neck  is  a  bulb  (C), 


180  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

above  and  below  which  are  two  marks  (F)  and  (£);  the 
volume  between  these  marks  is  20  cu.  cm.  (1.22  cu.  ins.). 
The  neck  has  a  diameter  of  about  9  mm.  (0.35  in.),  and 
is  graduated  into  tenths  of  cubic  centimeters  above  the 
mark  (F). 

11.  Benzine  (62  degrees  Baume  naphtha),  or  kerosene 
free  from  water,  should  be  used  in  making  the  determination. 

12.  The  specific  gravity  can  be  determined  in  two  ways: 
(i)  The  flask  is  filled  with  either  of  these  liquids  to  the 
lower  mark  (£),  and  64  gr.  (2.25  oz.)  of  powder,  cooled  to  the 
temperature  of  the  liquid,  is  gradually  introduced  through 
the  funnel  (B)  [the  stem  of  which  extends  into  the  flask  to 
the  top  of  the  bulb  (C)],  until  the  upper  mark  (F)  is  reached. 
The  difference  in  weight  between  the  cement  remaining  and 
the  original  quantity  (64  gr.)  is  the  weight  which  has  dis- 
placed 20  cu.  cm. 

13.  (2)  The  whole  quantity  of  the  powder  is  introduced, 
and  the  level  of  the  liquid  rises  to  some  division  of  the 
graduated  neck.     This  reading  plus  20  cu.  cm.  is  the  volume 
displaced  by  64  gr.  of  the  powder. 

14.  The  specific  gravity  is  then  obtained  from  the  formula : 

Specific  Gravity  =  -     ,Weif *  °f  Cement>  8™°* 

Displaced  Volume,  in  cubic  centimeters 

15.  The  flask,  during  the  operation,  is  kept  immersed  in 
water  in  a  jar  (^4),  in  order  to  avoid  variations  in  the  tem- 
perature of  the  liquid.     The  results  should  agree  within  o.oi . 
The  determination  of  specific  gravity  should  be  made  on 
the  cement  as  received;  and  should  it  fall  below  3.10,  a  second 
determination  should  be  made  on  the  sample  ignited  at  a 
low  red  heat. 

1 6.  A  convenient  method  for  cleaning  the  apparatus  is  as 
follows:  The  flask  is  inverted  over  a  large  vessel,  preferably 
a  glass  jar,  and  shaken  vertically  until  the  liquid  starts  to 
flow  freely;  it  is  then  held  still  in  a  vertical  position  until 


APPENDIX  I  l8l 

empty;  the  remaining  traces  of  cement  can  be  removed  in  a 
similar  manner  by  pouring  into  the  flask  a  small  quantity 
of  clean  liquid  and  repeating  the  operation. 

17.  More  accurate  determinations  may  be  made  with 
the  picnometer. 

FINENESS. 

18.  SIGNIFICANCE.    It  is  generally  accepted   that  the 
coarser  particles  in  cement  are  practically  inert,  and  it  is 
only  the  extremely  fine  powder  that  possesses  adhesive  or 
cementing  qualities.     The  more  finely  cement  is  pulverized, 
all  other  conditions  being  the  same,  the  more  sand  it  will 
carry  and  produce  a  mortar  of  a  given  strength. 

19.  The  degree  of  final  pulverization  which  the  cement 
receives  at  the  place  of  manufacture  is  ascertained  by  meas- 
uring the  residue  retained  on  certain  sieves.    Those  known 
as  the  No.  100  and  No.  200  sieves  are  recommended  for  this 
purpose. 

20.  APPARATUS.    The  sieves  should  be  circular,  about 
20  cm.  (7.87  ins.)  in  diameter,  6  cm.  (2.36  ins.)  high,  and 
provided  with  a  pan  5  cm.  (1.97  ins.)  deep,  and  a  cover. 

21.  The  wire  cloth  should  be  of  brass  wire  having  the 
following  diameters: 

No.  loo,  0.0045  in.;  No.  200,  0.0024  in. 

22.  This  cloth  should  be  mounted  on  the  frames  without 
distortion;  the  mesh  should  be  regular  in  spacing  and  be 
within  the  following  limits: 

No.  loo,  96  to  100  meshes  to  the  linear  inch. 
No.  200,  1 88  to  200  meshes  to  the  linear  inch. 

23.  Fifty  grams  (1.76  oz.)  or  100  gr.  (3.52  oz.)  should  be 
used  for  the  test,  and  dried  at  a  temperature  of  100°  Cent. 
(212°  Fahr.)  prior  to  sieving. 

24.  METHOD.     The  Committee,  after  careful  investiga- 
tion, has  reached  the  conclusion  that  mechanical  sieving  is 


1 82  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

not  as  practicable  or  efficient  as  handwork,  and,  therefore, 
recommends  the  following  method: 

25.  The  thoroughly -dried  and  coarsely-screened  sample 
is  weighed  and  placed  on  the  No.  200  sieve,  which,  with 
pan  and  cover  attached,  is  held  in  one  hand  in  a  slightly 
inclined  position,  and  moved  forward  and  backward,  at  the 
same  time  striking  the  side  gently  with  the  palm  of  the  other 
hand,  at  the  rate  of  about  200  strokes  per  minute.    The 
operation  is  continued  until  not  more  than  one-tenth  of 
i  per  cent  passes  through  after  one  minute  of  continuous 
sieving.     The  residue  is  weighed,  then  placed  on  the  No.  100 
sieve   and   the   operation   repeated.    The   work   may   be 
expedited  by  placing  in  the  sieve  a  small  quantity  of  large 
steel  shot.    The  results  should  be  reported  to  the  nearest 
tenth  of  i  per  cent. 

NORMAL  CONSISTENCY. 

26.  SIGNIFICANCE.     The  use  of  a  proper  percentage  of 
water  in  making  the  pastes*  from  which  pats,  tests  of  setting, 
and  briquettes  are  made,  is  exceedingly  important,  and 
affects  vitally  the  results  obtained. 

27.  The  determination  consists  in  measuring  the  amount 
of  water  required  to  reduce  the  cement  to  a  given  state 
of  plasticity,  or  to  what  is  usually  designated  the  normal 
consistency, 

.  .  28.  Various  methods  have  been  proposed  for  making 
this  determination,  none  of  which  has  been  found  entirely 
satisfactory.  The  Committee  recommends  the  following: 
29.  METHOD.  VICAT  NEEDLE  APPARATUS.  This  con- 
sists of  a  frame  (K),  Fig.  62,  bearing  a  movable  rod  (Z,), 
with  the  cap  04)  at  one  end,  and  at  the  other  the  cylinder 
(B),  i  cm.  (0.39  in.)  in  diameter,  the  cap,  rod,  and  cylinder 

*  The  term  "paste"  is  used  in  this  report  to  designate  a  mix- 
ture of  cement  and  water,  and  the  word  "mortar"  a  mixture  of 
cement,  sand,  and  water. 


APPENDIX  I 


183 


weighing  300  gr.  (10.58  oz.).  The  rod,  which  can  be  held 
in  any  desired  position  by  a  screw  (F),  carries  an  indicator, 
which  moves  over  a  scale  (graduated  to  centimeters)  at- 
tached to  the  frame  (K).  The  paste  is  held  by  a  conical, 


Fig.  62.  —  Vicat  Needle 

hard-rubber  ring  (7),  7  cm.  (2.76  ins.)  in  diameter  at  the 
base,  4  cm.  (1.57  ins.)  high,  resting  on  a  glass  plate  (7), 
about  10  cm.  (3.94  ins.)  square. 

30.  In  making  the  determination,  the  same  quantity 
of  cement  as  will  be  subsequently  used  for  each  batch  in 
making  the  briquettes  (but  not  less  than  500  grams)  is 
kneaded  into  a  paste,  as  described  in  paragraph  58,  and 
quickly  formed  into  a  ball  with  the  hands,  completing  the 
operation  by  tossing  it  six  times  from  one  hand  to  the  other, 
maintained  6  ins.  apart;  the  ball  is  then  pressed  into  the 
rubber  ring,  through  the  larger  opening,  smoothed  off, 
and  placed  (on  its  large  end)  on  a  glass  plate  and  the  smaller 


1 84 


MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 


end  smoothed  off  with  a  trowel;  the  paste,  confined  in  the 
ring,  resting  on  the  plate,  is  placed  under  the  rod  bearing 
the  cylinder,  which  is  brought  in  contact  with  the  surface 
and  Quickly  released. 

3 1 .  The  paste  is  of  normal  consistency  when  the  cylinder 
penetrates  to  a  point  in  the  mass  10  mm.  (0.39  in.)  below  the 
top  of  the  ring.     Great  care  must  be  taken  to  fill  the  ring 
exactly  to  the  top. 

32.  The  trial  pastes  are  made  with  varying  percentages 
of  water  until  the  correct  consistency  is  obtained. 

NOTE.  The  Committee  on  Standard  Specifications  for  Cement 
inserts  the  following  table  for  temporary  use  to  be  replaced  by 
one  to  be  devised  by  the  Committee  of  the  American  Society  of 
Civil  Engineers. 

PERCENTAGE  OF  WATER  FOR  STANDARD  SAND 
MORTARS. 


One  Cement 

One  Cement 

One  Cement 

Neat. 

Three  Stand- 
ard Ottawa 

Neat. 

Three  Stand- 
ard Ottawa 

Neat. 

Three  Stand- 
ard Ottawa 

Sand. 

Sand. 

Sand. 

IS 

8.0 

23 

9-3 

31 

10.7 

16 

{ 

J.2 

24 

9-5 

32 

10.8 

17 

8-3 

25 

9-7 

33 

II  .O 

18 

8-5 

26 

9-8 

34 

II.  2 

iQ 

8.7 

27 

IO.O 

35 

ii.  5 

20 

8.8 

28 

10.2 

36 

".  S 

21 

9.0 

29 

10.3 

37 

ii.  7 

22 

9.2 

30 

10-5 

38 

n.  8 

i  to  I              I  to  2              I  to  3              I  to  4            I  to  S 

Cement.  .  . 

500             333              250             200             167 

Sand  

500             666              750             800            833 

33.  The   Committee  has  recommended,   as  normal,  a 
paste,  the  consistency  of  which  is  rather  wet,  because  it 


APPENDIX  I  185 

believes  that  variations  in  the  amount  of  compression  to 
which  the  briquette  is  subjected  in  molding  are  likely  to  be 
less  with  such  a  paste. 

34.  Having  determined  in  this  manner  the  proper  per- 
centage of  water  required  to  produce  a  paste  of  normal 
consistency,  the  proper  percentage  required  for  the  mortars 
is  obtained  from  an  empirical  formula. 

35.  The  Committee  hopes  to  devise  such  a  formula. 
The  subject  proves  to  be  a  very  difficult  one,  and,  although 
the  Committee  has  given  it  much  study,  it  is  not  yet  pre- 
pared to  make  a  definite  recommendation. 

TIME  OF  SETTING. 

36.  SIGNIFICANCE.      The  object  of  this  test  is  to  deter- 
mine the   time  which  elapses  from  the  moment  water  is 
added  until  the  paste  ceases  to  be  fluid  and  plastic  (called 
the  "initial  set"),  and  also  the  time  required  for  it  to  acquire 
a  certain  degree  of  hardness  (called  the  "final"  or  "hard 
set").    The  former  of  these  is  the  more  important,  since, 
with  the  commencement  of  setting,  the  process  of  crystalli- 
zation or  hardening  is  said  to  begin.     As  a  disturbance  of 
this  process  may  produce  a  loss  of  strength,  it  is  desirable 
to  complete  the  operation  of  mixing  and  molding  or  incor- 
porating the  mortar  into  the  work  before  the  cement  begins 
to  set. 

37.  It  is  usual  to  measure  arbitrarily  the  beginning  and 
end  of  the  setting  by  the  penetration  of  weighted  wires  of 
given  diameters. 

38.  METHOD.    For  this  purpose  the  Vicat  Needle,  which 
has  already  been  described  in  paragraph   29,  should  be 
used. 

39.  In  making  the  test,  a  paste  of  normal  consistency  is 
molded  and  placed  under  the  rod  (L),  Fig.  24,  as  described 
in  paragraph  30;  this  rod,  bearing  the  cap  (D)  at  one  end 
and  the  needle  (H),  i  mm.  (0.039  in.)  in  diameter,  at  the 


1 86  MATERIALS   TESTING  MANUAL 

other,  weighing  300  gr.  (10.58  oz.).  The  needle  is  then 
carefully  brought  in  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  paste 
and  quickly  released. 

40.  The  setting  is  said  to  have  commenced  when  the 
needle  ceases  to  pass  a  point  5  mm.  (0.20  in.)  above  the 
upper  surface  of  the  glass  plate,  and  is  said  to  have  termi- 
nated the  moment  the  needle  does  not  sink  visibly  into  the 
mass. 

41.  The  test  pieces  should  be  stored  in  moist  air  during 
the  test;  this  is  accomplished  by  placing  them  on  a  rack 
over  water  contained  in  a  pan  and  covered  with  a  damp 
cloth,  the  cloth  to  be  kept  away  from  them  by  means  of  a 
wire  screen;  or  they  may  be  stored  in  a  moist  box  or  closet. 

42.  Care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  needle  clean,  as  the 
collection  of  cement  on  the  sides  of  the  needle  retards  the 
penetration,  while  cement  on  the  point  reduces  the  area  and 
tends  to  increase  the  penetration. 

43.  The  determination  of   the   time  of  setting   is  only 
approximate,  being  materially  affected  by  the  temperature 
of  the  mixing  water,  the  temperature  and  humidity  of  the 
air  during  the  test,  the  percentage  of  water  used,  and  the 
amount  of  molding  the  paste  receives. 

STANDARD  SAND. 

44.  The  Committee  recognizes  the  grave  objections  to 
the   standard   quartz    now   generally   used,   especially  on 
account  of  its  high  percentage  of  voids,  the  difficulty  of 
compacting  in  the  molds,  and  its  lack  of  uniformity;  it  has 
spent  much  time  in  investigating  the  various  natural  sands 
which  appeared  to  be  available  and  suitable  for  use. 

45.  For  the  present,   the  Committee  recommends  the 
natural  sand  from  Ottawa,  111.,  screened  to  pass  a  sieve 
having  20  meshes  per  linear  inch  and  retained  on  a  sieve 
having  30  meshes  per  linear  inch;  the  wires  to  have  diameters 
of  0.0165  and  0.0112  in.,  respectively,  i.e.,  half  the  width  of 


APPENDIX  I  187 

the  opening  in  each  case.  Sand  having  passed  the  No.  20 
sieve  shall  be  considered  standard  when  not  more  than  one 
per  cent  passes  a  No.  30  sieve  after  one  minute  continuous 
sifting  of  a  5oo-gram  sample. 

FORM  OF  BRIQUETTE. 

46.  While  the  form  of  the  briquette  recommended  by  a 
former  Committee  of  the  Society  is  not  wholly  satisfactory, 
this  Committee  is  not  prepared  to  suggest  any  change,  other 
than  rounding  off  the  corners  by  curves  of  £-in.  radius, 
Fig.  63. 

MOLDS. 

47.  The  molds  should  be  made  of  brass,  bronze,  or  some 
equally  noncorrodible  material,  having  sufficient  metal  in 
the  sides  to  prevent  spreading  during  molding. 

48.  Gang  molds,  which  permit  molding  a  number  of 
briquettes  at  one  time,  are  preferred  by  many  to  single 
molds,  since  the  greater  quantity  of  mortar  that  can  be 
mixed  tends  to  produce  greater  uniformity  in  the  results. 
The  type  shown  in  Fig.  64  is  recommended. 

49.  The  molds  should  be  wiped  with  an  oily  cloth  before 
using. 

MIXING. 

50.  All  proportions   should  be  stated  by  weight;   the 
quantity  of  water  to  be  used  should  be  stated  as  a  per- 
centage of  the  dry  material. 

51.  The  metric  system  is  recommended  because  of  the 
convenient  relation  of  the  gram  and  the  cubic  centimeter. 

52.  The  temperature  of  the  room  and  the  mixing  water 
should  be  as  near  21°  Cent.  (70°  Fahr.)  as  it  is  practicable 
to  maintain  it. 

53.  The  sand  and  cement  should  be  thoroughly  mixed 
dry.     The  mixing  should  be  done  on  some  nonabsorbing 
surface,  preferably  plate  glass.    If  the  mixing  must  be  done 


188              MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 
l_3" 


Fig.  63.  —  Details  for  Briquette 


Fig.  64  —  Details  for  Gang  Mold 


APPENDIX  I  189 

on  an  absorbing  surface,  it  should  be  thoroughly  dampened 
prior  to  use. 

54.  The  quantity  of  material  to  be  mixed  at  one  time 
depends  on  the  number  of  test  pieces  to  be  made;  about 
1000  gr.  (35.28  oz.)  makes  a  convenient  quantity  to  mix, 
especially  by  hand  methods. 

55.  The  Committee,  after  investigation  of  the  various 
mechanical  mixing  machines,  has  decided  not  to  recommend 
any  machine  that  has  thus  far  been  devised,  for  the  following 
reasons:  (i)  The  tendency  of  most  cement  is  to  "ball  up" 
in  the  machine,  thereby  preventing  the  working  of  it  into 
a  homogeneous  paste;  (2)  there  are  no  means  of  ascertaining 
when  the  mixing  is  complete  without  stopping  the  machine; 
and  (3)  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the  machine  clean. 

56.  METHOD.     The  material  is  weighed  and  placed  on 
the  mixing  table,  and  a  crater  formed  in  the  center,  into 
which  the  proper  percentage  of  clean  water  is  poured;  the 
material  on  the  outer  edge  is  turned  into  the  crater  by  the 
aid  of  a  trowel.     As  soon  as  the  water  has  been  absorbed, 
which  should  not  require  more  than  i  minute,  the  opera- 
tion is  completed  by  vigorously  kneading  with  the  hands  for 
an  additional  i  \  minutes,  the  process  being  similar  to  that 
used  in  kneading  dough.     A  sandglass  affords  a  convenient 
guide  for  the  time  of  kneading.     During  the  operation  of 
mixing,  the  hands  should  be  protected  by  gloves,  preferably 
of  rubber. 

MOLDING. 

57.  Having  worked  the  paste  or  mortar  to  the  proper 
consistency,  it  is  at  once  placed  in  the  molds  by  hand. 

58.  The  Committee  has  been  unable  to  secure  satisfactory 
results  with  the  present  molding  machines;  the  operation  of 
machine  molding  is  very  slow,  and  the  present  types  permit 
of  molding  but  one  briquette  at  a  time,  and  are  not  prac- 
ticable with  the  pastes  or  mortars  herein  recommended. 

59.  METHOD.    The  molds  should  be  rilled  immediately 


1 90  MATERIALS   TESTING  MANUAL 

after  the  mixing  is  completed,  the  material  pressed  in  firmly 
with  the  fingers  and  smoothed  off  with  a  trowel  without 
mechanical  ramming.  The  mold  should  be  turned  over 
and  the  operation  repeated. 

60.  A  check  upon  the  uniformity  of  the  mixing  and 
molding  is  afforded  by  weighing  the  briquettes  just  prior 
to   immersion,   or  upon   removal   from   the  moist   closet. 
Briquettes  which  vary  in  weight  more  than  3  per  cent  from 
the  average  should  not  be  tested. 

STORAGE  OF  THE  TEST  PIECES. 

61.  During  the  first  24  hours  after  molding,   the  test 
pieces  should  be  kept  in  moist  air  to  prevent  them  from 
drying  out. 

62.  A  moist  closet  or  chamber  is  so  easily  devised  that 
the  use  of  the  damp  cloth  should  be  abandoned  if  possible. 
Covering  the  test  pieces  with  a  damp  cloth  is  objectionable, 
as  commonly  used,  because  the  cloth  may  dry  out  unequally, 
and,  in  consequence,  the  test  pieces  are  not  all  maintained 
under  the  same  condition.     Where  a  moist  closet  is  not 
available,  a  cloth  may  be  used  and  kept  uniformly  wet  by 
immersing  the  ends  in  water.     It  should  be  kept  from  direct 
contact  with  the  test  pieces  by  means  of  a  wire  screen  or 
some  similar  arrangement. 

63.  A  moist  closet  consists  of  a  soapstone  or  slate  box, 
or  a    metal-lined   wooden   box  —  the   metal    lining   being 
covered  with  felt  and  this  felt  kept  wet.     The  bottom  of  the 
box  is  so  constructed  as  to  hold  water,  and  the  sides  are 
provided  with  cleats  for  holding  glass  shelves  on  which  to 
place  the  briquettes.     Care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the 
air  in  the  closet  uniformly  moist. 

64.  After  24  hours  in  moist  air  the  test  pieces  for  longer 
periods  of  time  should  be  immersed  in  water  maintained  as 
near   21°  Cent.    (70°  Fahr.)   as  practicable;   they  may  be 
stored  in  tanks  or  pans,  which  should  be  of  noncorrodible 
material. 


APPENDIX  I 
TENSILE  STRENGTH. 


191 


65.  The  tests  may  be  made  on  any  standard  machine. 
A  solid  metal  clip,  as  shown  in  Fig.  65,  is  recommended. 
This  clip  is  to  be  used  without  cushioning  at  the  points  of 


Fig.  65.  —  Form  of  Clip 

contact  with  the  test  specimen.  The  bearing  at  each  point 
of  contact  should  be  £-in.  wide,  and  the  distance  between 
the  center  of  contact  on  the  same  clip  should  be  1 1  ins. 


1 92  MATERIALS   TESTING  MANUAL 

66.  Test  pieces  should  be  broken  as  soon  as  they  arc 
removed  from  the  water.     Care  should  be  observed  in  cen- 
tering the  briquettes  in  the  testing  machine,  as  cross-strains, 
produced  by  improper  centering,  tend  to  lower  the  breaking 
strength.    The  load  should  not  be  applied  too  suddenly,  as 
it  may  produce  vibration,  the  shock  from  which  often  breaks 
the  briquette  before  the  ultimate  strength  is  reached.     Care 
must  be  taken  that  the  clips  and  the  sides  of  the  briquette 
be  clean  and  free  from  grains  of  sand  or  dirt,  which  would 
prevent  a  good  bearing.     The  load  should  be  applied  at  the 
rate  of  600  Ibs.  per  minute.     The  average  of  the  briquettes 
of  each  sample  tested  should  be  taken  as  the  test,  excluding 
any  results  which  are  manifestly  faulty. 

CONSTANCY  OF  VOLUME. 

67.  SIGNIFICANCE.     The  object  is  to  develop  those  qual- 
ities which  tend  to  destroy  the  strength  and  durability  of  a 
cement.     As  it  is  highly  essential  to  determine  such  qual- 
ities at  once,  tests  of  this  character  are  for  the  most  part 
made  in  a  very  short  time,  and  are  known,  therefore,  as 
accelerated  tests.     Failure  is  revealed  by  cracking,  checking, 
swelling,  or  disintegration,  or  all  of  these  phenomena.     A 
cement  which  remains  perfectly  sound  is  said  to  be  of  con- 
stant volume. 

68.  METHODS.       Tests    for    constancy    of    volume    are 
divided  into  two  classes:  (i)   normal  tests,  or  those  made 
in  either  air  or  water  maintained  at  about  21°  Cent.  (70° 
Fahr.),  and  (2)  accelerated  tests,  or  those  made  in  air, 
steam,  or  water  at  a  temperature  of  45°  Cent.  (115°  Fahr.) 
and  upward.    The  test  pieces  should  be  allowed  to  remain 
24  hours  in  moist  air  before  immersion  in  water  or  steam, 
or  preservation  in  air. 

69.  For  these  tests,  pats,  about  7!  cm.   (2.95  ins.)  in 
diameter,  i£  cm.  (0.49  in.)  thick  at  the  center,  and  tapering 
to  a  thin  edge,  should  be  made,  upon  a  clean  glass  plate 


APPENDIX  I 


193 


1 94  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

[about  10  cm.   (3.94  ins.)  square],  from  cement  paste  of 
normal  consistency. 

70.  NORMAL  TEST.    A  pat  is  immersed  in  water  main- 
tained as  near  21°  Cent.  (70°  Fahr.)  as  possible  for  28  days, 
and  observed  at  intervals.    A  similar  pat,  after  24  hours  in 
moist  air,  is  maintained  in  air  at  ordinary  temperature  and 
observed  at  intervals. 

71.  ACCELERATED  TEST.     A  pat  is  exposed  in  any  con- 
venient way  in  an  atmosphere  of  steam,  above  boiling  water, 
in  a  loosely-closed  vessel,   for   5   hours.      The  apparatus 
recommended  for  making  these  determinations  is  shown  in 
Fig.  66. 

72.  To  pass  these  tests  satisfactorily,  the  pats  should 
remain  firm  and  hard,  and  show  no  signs  of  cracking,  distor- 
tion, or  disintegration. 

73.  Should  the  pat  leave  the  plate,  distortion  may  be 
detected  best  with  a  straight-edge  applied  to  the  surface 
which  was  in  contact  with  the  plate. 

74.  In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  it  cannot  be 
said  that  cement  should  necessarily  be  condemned  simply 
for  failure  to  pass  the  accelerated  tests;  nor  can  a  cement 
be  considered  entirely  satisfactory,  simply  because  it  has 
passed  these  tests. 


APPENDIX    II. 

REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  STANDARD  SPECI- 
FICATIONS FOR  CEMENT  OF  THE  AMERICAN 
SOCIETY  FOR  TESTING  MATERIALS.* 

(ADOPTED  BY  THE  SOCIETY,  AUGUST  16,  1909.) 

GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  These  remarks  have  been  prepared  with  a  view  of 
pointing  out  the  pertinent  features  of  the  various  require- 
ments and  the  precautions  to  be  observed  in  the  interpre- 
tation of  the  results  of  the  tests. 

2.  The  Committee  would  suggest  that  the  acceptance  or 
rejection  under  these  specifications  be  based  on  tests  made 
by  an  experienced  person  having  the  proper  means  for  mak- 
ing the  tests. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 

3.  Specific  gravity  is  useful  in  detecting  adulteration.   The 
results  of  tests  of  specific  gravity  are  not  necessarily  con- 
clusive as  an  indication  of  the  quality  of  a  cement,  but 
when  in  combination  with  the  results  of  other  tests  may 
afford  valuable  indications. 

FINENESS. 

4.  The  sieves  should  be  kept  thoroughly  dry. 

TIME  OF  SETTING. 

5.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  to  maintain  the  test 
pieces  under  as  uniform  conditions  as  possible.     A  sudden 

*  Authorized    reprint    from    Proceedings    of    the    American 
Society  for  Testing  Materials,  Volume  9,  1909,  pages  116-130. 


196  MATERIALS  TESTING   MANUAL 

change  or  wide  range  of  temperature  in  the  room  in  which 
the  tests  are  made,  a  very  dry  or  humid  atmosphere,  and 
other  irregularities,  vitally  affect  the  rate  of  setting. 

CONSTANCY  OF  VOLUME. 

6.  The  tests  for  constancy  of  volume  are  divided  into  two 
classes,  the  first  normal,  the  second  accelerated.    The  latter 
should  be  regarded  as  a  precautionary  test  only,  and  not 
infallible.     So  many  conditions  enter  into  the  making  and 
interpreting  of  it  that  it  should  be  used  with  extreme  care. 

7.  In  making  the  pats  the  greatest  care  should  be  exercised 
to  avoid  initial  strains  due  to  molding  or  to  too  rapid  dry- 
ing-out during  the  first  24  hours.     The  pats  should  be  pre- 
served under  the  most  uniform   conditions  possible,  and 
rapid  changes  of  temperature  should  be  avoided. 

8.  The  failure  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  acceler- 
ated tests  need  not  be  sufficient  cause  for  rejection.     The 
cement  may,  however,  be  held   for  28  days,  and  a  retest 
made  at  the  end  of  that  period.     Failure  to  meet  the  re- 
quirements at   this   time   should   be  considered  sufficient 
cause  for  rejection,  although  in  the  present  state  of  our 
knowledge  it  cannot  be  said  that  such  failure  necessarily 
indicates  unsoundness,  nor  can  the  cement  be  considered 
entirely  satisfactory  simply  because  it  passes  the  tests. 

SPECIFICATIONS. 
GENERAL   CONDITIONS. 

1.  All  cement  shall  be  inspected. 

2.  Cement  may  be  inspected  either  at  the  place  of  manu- 
facture or  on  the  work. 

3.  In  order  to  allow  ample  time  for  inspecting  and  test- 
ing, the  cement  should  be  stored  in  a  suitable  weather-tight 
building  having  the  floor  properly  blocked  or  raised  from 
the  ground. 


APPENDIX  II  197 

4.  The  cement  shall  be  stored  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
permit  easy  access  for  proper  inspection  and  identification 
of  each  shipment. 

5.  Every  facility  shall  be  provided  by  the  contractor,  and 
a  period  of  at  least  12  days  allowed  for  the  inspection  and 
necessary  tests. 

6.  Cement  shall  be  delivered  in  suitable  packages  with  the 
brand  and  name  of  manufacturer  plainly  marked  thereon. 

7.  A  bag  of  cement  shall  contain  94  pounds  of  cement 
net.    Each  barrel  of  Portland  cement  shall  contain  4  bags, 
and  each  barrel  of  natural  cement  shall  contain  3  bags  of 
the  above  net  weight. 

8.  Cement  failing  to  meet  the  7-day  requirements  may 
be  held  awaiting  the  results  of  the   28-day  tests  before 
rejection. 

9.  All  tests  shall  be  made  in  accordance  with  the  methods 
proposed  by  the  Committee  on  Uniform  Tests  of  Cement 
of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  presented  to 
the  Society  January  21,  1903,  and  amended  January  20, 
1904,  and  January  15, 1908,  with  all  subsequent  amendments 
thereto. 

10.  The  acceptance  or  rejection  shall  be  based  on  the  fol- 
lowing requirements: 

NATURAL   CEMENT. 

11.  Definition.    This  term  shall  be  applied  to  the  finely 
pulverized  product  resulting  from  the  calcination  of  an 
argillaceous  limestone  at  a  temperature  only  sufficient  to 
drive  off  the  carbonic  acid  gas. 

FINENESS. 

12.  It  shall  leave  by  weight  a  residue  of  not  more  than 
ro  per  cent  on  the  No.  100,  and  30  per  cent  on  the  No.  200 
sieve. 


198  MATERIALS   TESTING  MANUAL 

TIME  or  SETTING. 

13.  It  shall  not  develop  initial  set  in  less  than  10  minutes, 
and  shall  not  develop  hard  set  in  less  than  30  minutes,  or 
in  more  than  3  hours. 

TENSILE  STRENGTH. 

14.  The  minimum  requirements  for  tensile  strength  for 
briquettes  i  square  inch  in  cross  section  shall  be  as  follows, 
and  the  cement  shall   show  no   retrogression  in  strength 
within  the  periods  specified: 

Age.  Neat  Cement.  Strength. 

24  hours  in  moist  air 75  Ibs. 

7  days  (i  day  in  moist  air,  6  days  in  water)     150    " 
28  days  (i  day  in  moist  air,  27  days  in  water)  .     250    " 

One  Part  Cement,  Three  Parts  Standard  Ottawa  Sand. 

7  days  (i  day  in  moist  air,  6  days  in  water) . .       50  Ibs. 
28  days  (i  day  in  moist  air,  27  days  in  water) .     125    " 

CONSTANCY  OF  VOLUME. 

15.  Pats  of  neat  cement  about  3  inches  in  diameter, 
\  inch  thick  at  center,  and  tapering  to  a  thin  edge,  shall  be 
kept  in  moist  air  for  a  period  of  24  hours. 

(a)  A  pat  is  then  kept  in  air  at  normal  temperature. 
(&)  Another  is  kept  in  water  maintained  as  near  70°  Fahr. 
as  practicable. 

1 6.  These  pats  are  observed  at  intervals  for  at  least 
28  days,  and,  to  satisfactorily  pass  the  tests,  should  remain 
firm  and  hard  and  show  no  signs  of  distortion,  checking, 
cracking,  or  disintegrating. 


APPENDIX   II  199 

PORTLAND   CEMENT. 

17.  Definition.    This  term  is  applied  to  the  finely  pul- 
verized product  resulting  from  the  calcination  to  incipient 
fusion   of   an   intimate   mixture   of  properly  proportioned 
argillaceous  and  calcareous  materials,   and   to   which  no 
addition  greater  than  3  per  cent  has  been  made  subsequent 
to  calcination. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 

18.  The  specific  gravity  of  cement  shall  be  not  less  than 
3.10.     Should  the  test  of  cement  as  received  fall  below'this 
requirement,  a   second  test  may  be  made  upon  a  sample 
ignited  at  a  low  red  heat.     The  loss  in  weight  of  the  ignited 
cement  shall  not  exceed  4  per  cent. 

FINENESS. 

19.  It  shall  leave  by  weight  a  residue  of  not  more  than 
8  per  cent  on  the  No.  100,  and  not  more  than  25  per  cent  on 
the  No.  200  sieve." 

TIME  OF  SETTING. 

20.  It  shall  not  develop  initial  set  in  less  than  30  min- 
utes, and  must  develop  hard  set  in  not  less  than  i  hour, 
nor  more  than  10  hours. 

TENSILE  STRENGTH. 

21.  The  minimum  requirements  for  tensile  strength  for 
briquettes  i  sq.  in.  in  cross  section  shall  be  as  follows,  and 
the  cement  shall  show  no  retrogression  in  strength  within  the 
periods  specified: 

Age.  Neat  Cement.  Strength. 

24  hours  in  moist  air 175  Ibs. 

7  days  (i  day  in  moist  air,  6  days  in  water) .  .      500  " 
28  days  (i  day  in  moist  air,  27  days  in  water) .     600  " 


200  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

One  Part  Cement,  Three  Parts  Standard  Ottawa  Sand. 
Age.  Strength. 

7  days  (i  day  in  moist  air,  6  days  in  water) . .     200  Ibs. 
28  days  (i  day  in  moist  air,  27  days  in  water)  .     275   " 

CONSTANCY  or  VOLUME. 

22.  Pats  of  neat  cement  about  3  ins.  in  diameter,  \  in. 
thick  at  the  center,  and  tapering  to  a  thin  edge,  shall  be 
kept  in  moist  air  for  a  period  of  24  hours. 

(a)  A  pat  is  then  kept  in  air  at  normal  temperature  and 
observed  at  intervals  for  at  least  28  days. 

(b)  Another  pat  is  kept  in  water  maintained  as  near 
70°  Fahr.  as  practicable,  and  observed  at  intervals  for  at 
least  28  days. 

(c)  A  third  pat  is  exposed  in  any  convenient  way  in  an 
atmosphere  of  steam,   above  boiling  water,   in  a  loosely 
closed  vessel  for  5  hours. 

23.  These  pats,  to  satisfactorily  pass  the  requirements, 
shall  remain  firm  and  hard  and  show  no  signs  of  distortion, 
checking,  cracking,  or  disintegrating. 

SULPHURIC  ACID  AND  MAGNESIA. 

24.  The  cement  shall  not  contain  more  than  1.75  per  cent 
of  anhydrous  sulphuric  acid  (SO3),  nor  more  than  4  per  cent 
of  magnesia  (MgO). 


APPENDIX   III. 

METHOD  SUGGESTED  FOR  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  LIME- 
STONES, RAW  MIXTURES,  AND  PORTLAND 
CEMENTS  BY  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  UNIFORM- 
ITY IN  TECHNICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW 
YORK  SECTION  OF  THE  SOCIETY  FOR  CHEM- 
ICAL INDUSTRY.* 

SOLUTION. 

One-half  gram  of  the  finely-powdered  substance  is  to  be 
weighed  out  and,  if  a  limestone  or  unburned  mixture, 
strongly  ignited  in  a  covered  platinum  crucible  over  a  strong 
blast  for  15  minutes,  or  longer  if  the  blast  is  not  powerful 
enough  to  effect  complete  conversion  to  a  cement  in  this 
time.  It  is  then  transferred  to  an  evaporating  dish,  prefer- 
ably of  platinum  for  the  sake  of  celerity  in  evaporation, 
moistened  with  enough  water  to  prevent  lumping,  and  5  to 
10  c.c.  of  strong  HC1  added  and  digested  with  the  aid  of 
gentle  heat  and  agitation  until  solution  is  complete.  Solu- 
tion may  be  aided  by  light  pressure  with  the  flattened  end 
of  a  glass  rod.f  The  solution  is  then  evaporated  to  dryness, 
as  far  as  this  may  be  possible  on  the  bath. 

*  Reprinted  from  Standard  Methods  of  Testing  and  Specifica- 
tions for  Cement,  edited  by  the  Secretary,  under  the  direction  of 
Committee  C  on  Standard  Specifications  of  Cement  of  the  Amer- 
ican Society  for  Testing  Materials. 

t  If  anything  remains  undecomposed  it  should  be  separated, 
fused  with  a  little  Na2CO3,  dissolved  and  added  to  the  original 
solution.  Of  course  a  small  amount  of  separated  nongelatinous 
silica  is  not  to  be  mistaken  for  undecomposed  matter. 

201 


202  MATERIALS   TESTING   MANUAL 

SILICA   (Si02). 

The  residue  without  further  heating  is  treated  at  first 
with  5  to  10  c.c.  of  strong  HC1,  which  is  then  diluted  to  half 
strength  or  less,  or  upon  the  residue  may  be  poured  at  once 
a  larger  volume  of  acid  of  half  strength.  The  dish  is  then 
covered  and  digestion  allowed  to  go  on  for  10  minutes  on 
the  bath,  after  which  the  solution  is  filtered  and  the  separated 
silica  washed  thoroughly  with  water.  The  filtrate  is  again 
evaporated  to  dryness,  the  residue  without  further  heating 
taken  up  with  acid  and  water,  and  the  small  amount  of 
silica  it  contains  separated  on  another  filter  paper.  The 
papers  containing  the  residue  are  transferred  wet  to  a 
weighed  platinum  crucible,  dried,  ignited,  first  over  a  Bun- 
sen  burner  until  the  carbon  of  the  filter  is  completely  con- 
sumed, and  finally  over  the  blast  for  15  minutes  and  checked 
by  a  further  blasting  for  10  minutes  or  to  constant  weight. 
The  silica,  if  great  accuracy  is  desired,  is  treated  in  the 
crucible  with  about  10  c.c.  of  HF1  and  4  drops  of  H2SO4 
and  evaporated  over  a  low  flame  to  complete  dryness.  The 
small  residue  is  finally  blasted,  for  a  minute  or  two,  cooled 
and  weighed.  The  difference  between  this  weight  and  the 
weight  previously  obtained  gives  the  amount  of  silica.* 

ALUMINA  AND  IRON  (A12O3  AND  Fe2O3). 

The  filtrate,  about  250  c.c.,  from  the  second  evaporation 
for  SiO2,  is  made  alkaline  with  NH4OH  after  adding  HC1,  if 
need  be,  to  insure  a  total  of  10  to  15  c.c.  strong  acid,  and 
boiled  to  expel  excess  of  NH3,  or  until  there  is  but  a  faint 
odor  of  it,  and  the  precipitate  iron  and  aluminum  hydrates, 
after  settling,  are  washed  once  by  decantation  and  slightly  on 
the  filter.  Setting  aside  the  filtrate,  the  precipitate  is  dis- 
solved in  hot  dilute  HC1,  the  solution  passing  into  the  beaker 
in  which  the  precipitation  was  made.  The  aluminum  and 

*  For  ordinary  control  in  the  plant  laboratory  this  correction 
may,  perhaps,  be  neglected;  the  double  evaporation  never. 


APPENDIX  III  203 

iron  are  then  reprecipitated  by  NH4OH,  boiled,  and  the 
second  precipitate  collected  and  washed  on  the  same  filter 
used  in  the  first  instance.  The  filter  paper,  with  the  pre- 
cipitate, is  then  placed  in  a  weighed  platinum  crucible,  the 
paper  burned  off  and  the  precipitate  ignited  and  finally 
blasted  5  minutes,  with  care  to  prevent  reduction,  cooled, 
and  weighed  as  A1203  -f-  Fe203.* 

IRON  (Fe2O3). 

The  combined  iron  and  aluminum  oxides  are  fused  in  a 
platinum  crucible  at  a  very  low  temperature  with  about  3  to 

4  grams  of  KHS04,  or,  better,  NaHS04,  the  melt  taken  up 
with  so  much  dilute  H2SO4  that  there  shall  be  no  less  than 

5  grams  absolute  acid  and  enough  water  to  effect  solution  on 
heating.     The  solution  is  then  evaporated  and  eventually 
heated  till  acid  fumes  come  off  copiously.     After  cooling  and 
redissolving  in  water  the  small  amount  of  silica  is  filtered  out, 
weighed,  and  corrected  by  HF1  and  H2SO4.f    The  filtrate  is 
reduced  by  zinc,  or  preferably  by  hydrogen  sulphide,  boil- 
ing out  the  excess  of  the  latter  afterwards  while  passing  CO, 
through  the  flask,  and  titrated  with  permanganate. J     The 
strength  of  the  permanganate  solution  should  not  be  greater 
than  .0040  gr.  Fe2O3  per  c.c. 

LIME  (CaO). 

To  the  combined  filtrate  from  the  A12O3  +  Fe2O3  precipi- 
tate a  few  drops  of  NH4OH  are  added,  and  the  solution 
brought  to  boiling.  To  the  boiling  solution  20  c.c.  of  a 

*  This  precipitate  contains  TiO2,  P2O5,  Mn3O4. 

t  This  correction  of  Al2O3Fe2O3  for  silica  should  not  be  made 
when  the  HF1  correction  of  the  main  silica  has  been  omitted, 
unless  that  silica  was  obtained  by  only  one  evaporation  and 
filtration.  After  two  evaporations  and  filtrations  i  to  2  mg.  of 
SiO  are  still  to  be  found  with  the  Al2O3Fe2O3. 

t  In  this  way  only  is  the  influence  of  titanium  to  be  avoided 
and  a  correct  result  obtained  for  iron, 


204  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

saturated  solution  of  ammonium  oxalate  are  added,  and  the 
boiling  continued  until  the  precipitated  CaC204,  assumes  a 
well-defined  granular  form.  It  is  then  allowed  to  stand  for 
20  minutes,  or  until  the  precipitate  has  settled,  and  then 
filtered  and  washed.  The  precipitate  and  filter  are  placed 
wet  in  a  platinum  crucible,  and  the  paper  burned  off  over  a 
small  flame  of  a  Bunsen  burner.  It  is  then  ignited,  redis- 
solved  in  HC1,  and  the  solution  made  up  to  100  c.c.  with 
water.  Ammonia  is  added  in  slight  excess,  and  the  liquid  is 
boiled.  If  a  small  amount  of  A12O3  separates,  this  is  filtered 
out,  weighed,  and  the  amount  added  to  that  found  in  the 
first  determination,  when  greater  accuracy  is  desired.  The 
lime  is  then  reprecipitated  by  ammonium  oxalate,  allowed 
to  stand  until  settled,  filtered,  and  washed,*  weighed  as 
oxide  by  ignition  and  blasting  in  a  covered  crucible  to  con- 
stant weight,  or  determined  with  dilute  standard  perman- 
ganate.f 

MAGNESIA  (MgO). 

The  combined  filtrates  from  the  calcium  precipitates  are 
acidified  with  HC1  and  concentrated  on  the  steam  bath 
to  about  150  c.c.,  10  c.c.  of  saturated  solution  of  Na(NH4)- 
HPO4  are  added,  and  the  solution  boiled  for  several  minutes. 
It  is  then  removed  from  the  flame  and  cooled  by  placing  the 
beaker  in  ice  water.  After  cooling,  NH4OH  is  added  drop 
by  drop  with  constant  stirring  until  the  crystalline  ammo- 
nium-magnesium orthophosphate  begins  to  form,  and  then 
in  moderate  excess,  the  stirring  being  continued  for  several 
minutes.  It  is  then  set  aside  for  several  hours  in  a  cool 
atmosphere  and  filtered.  The  precipitate  is  redissolved  in  hot 
dilute  HC1,  the  solution  made  up  to  about  100  c.c.,  i  c.c.  of 
a  saturated  solution  of  Na(NH4)  HPO4  added,  and  ammonia 

*  The  volume  of  wash- water  should  not  be  too  large;  vide 
Hildebrand. 

t  The  accuracy  of  this  method  admits  of  criticism,  but  its 
convenience  and  rapidity  demand  its  insertion. 


APPENDIX  III  205 

drop  by  drop,  with  constant  stirring  until  the  precipitate  is 
again  formed  as  described  and  the  ammonia  is  in  moderate 
excess.  It  is  then  allowed  to  stand  for  about  2  hours,  when 
it  is  filtered  on  a  paper  or  a  Gooch  crucible,  ignited,  cooled, 
and  weighed  as  Mg2P2O7. 

ALKALIES  (K2O  AND  Na2O). 

For  the  determination  of  the  alkalies,  the  well-known 
method  of  Prof.  J.  Lawrence  Smith  is  to  be  followed,  either 
with  or  without  the  addition  of  CaCO3  with  NH4C1. 

ANHYDROUS  SULPHURIC  ACID  (S03). 

One  gram  of  the  substance  is  dissolved  in  15  c.c.  of  HC1, 
filtered,  and  residue  washed  thoroughly.* 

The  solution  is  made  up  to  250  c.c.  in  a  beaker  and  boiled. 
To  the  boiling  solution  10  c.c.  of  a  saturated  solution  of 
BaCl2  is  added  slowly  drop  by  drop  from  a  pipette  and  the 
boiling  continued  until  the  precipitate  is  well  formed,  or 
digestion  on  the  steam  bath  may  be  substituted  for  the  boil- 
ing. It  is  then  set  aside  over  night,  or  for  a  few  hours 
filtered,  ignited,  and  weighed  as  BaSO4. 

TOTAL  SULPHUR. 

One  gram  of  the  material  is  weighed  out  in  a  large  plati- 
num crucible  and  fused  with  Na2CO3  and  a  little  KNO3, 
being  careful  to  avoid  contamination  from  sulphur  in  the 
gases  from  source  of  heat.  This  may  be  done  by  fitting  the 
crucible  in  a  hole  in  an  asbestos  board.  The  melt  is  treated 
in  the  crucible  with  boiling  water,  and  the  liquid  poured  into 
a  tall,  narrow  beaker  and  more  hot  water  added  until  the 
mass  is  disintegrated.  The  solution  is  then  filtered.  The 
filtrate  contained  in  a  No.  4  beaker  is  to  be  acidulated  with 

*  Evaporation  to  dryness  is  unnecessary,  unless  gelatinous 
silica  should  have  separated  and  should  never  be  performed  on  a 
bath  heated  by  gas;  vide  Hildebrand. 


206  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

HC1  and  made  up  to  250  c.c.  with  distilled  water,  boiled,  the 
sulphur  precipitated  as  BaSCX  and  allowed  to  stand  over 
night  or  for  a  few  hours. 

Loss  ON  IGNITION. 

Half  a  gram  of  cement  is  to  be  weighed  out  in  a  platinum 
crucible,  placed  in  a  hole  in  an  asbestos  board  so  that 
about  I  of  the  crucible  projects  below,  and  blasted  15  min- 
utes, preferably  with  an  inclined  flame.  The  loss  by  weight, 
which  is  checked  by  a  second  blasting  of  5  minutes,  is  the 
loss  on  ignition. 

May,  1903:  Recent  investigations  have  shown  that  large 
errors  in  results  are  often  due  to  the  use  of  impure  distilled 
water  and  reagents.  The  analyst  should,  therefore,  test  his 
distilled  water  by  evaporation  and  his  reagents  by  appro- 
priate tests  before  proceeding  with  his  work. 


APPENDIX  IV. 

MAJORITY  REPORT  OF  PROGRESS  REPORT  OF 
SPECIAL  COMMITTEE  ON  CONCRETE  AND  RE- 
INFORCED CONCRETE  OF  THE  AMERICAN  SO- 
CIETY OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERS.* 

•  (PRESENTED  AT  THE  BUSINESS  MEETING  or  THE 
ANNUAL  CONVENTION,  JULY  7,  1909.) 

The  report,  herein  presented,  embodies  the  present  judg- 
ment of  the  Committee  concerning  the  proper  use  of  Gon- 
crete  and  Reinforced  Concrete. f 

II.  ADAPTABILITY  OF  CONCRETE  AND  REINFORCED 
CONCRETE. 

The  adaptability  of  concrete  and  reinforced  concrete  for 
engineering  structures,  or  parts  thereof,  is  now  so  well 
established  that  it  may  be  considered  one  of  the  recognized 
materials  of  construction.  It  has  proved  to  be  a  satis- 
factory material,  when  properly  used,  for  those  purposes 
for  which  its  qualities  make  it  particularly  suitable. 

i.   Proper  Use. 

Concrete  is  a  material  of  very  low  tensile  strength  and 
capable  of  sustaining  but  very  small  tensile  deformations 
without  rupture;  its  value  as  a  structural  material  depends 
chiefly  upon  its  durability,  its  fire-resisting  qualities,  its 
strength  in  compression,  and  its  relatively  low  cost.  Its 
strength  increases  generally  with  age. 

*  Authorized  reprint  from  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Vol.  66, 
Mar.,  1910. 

t  The  larger  part  of  7.  Introduction  is  here  omitted. 

207    • 


208  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

Plain  concrete  or  massive  concrete  is  well  adapted  for 
structural  forms  in  which  the  principal  stresses  are  com- 
pressive.  These  include  foundations,  dams,  retaining  and 
other  walls,  piers,  abutments,  short  columns,  and,  in  many 
cases,  arches.  In  the  design  of  massive  concrete,  the  ten- 
sile strength  of  the  material  must  generally  be  neglected. 

By  the  use  of  metal  reinforcement  to  resist  the  principal 
tensile  stresses,  concrete  becomes  available  for  general  use 
in  a  great  variety  of  structures  and  structural  forms.  This 
combination  of  concrete  and  metal  is  particularly  advan- 
tageous in  the  beam,  where  both  compression  and  tension 
exist;  it  is  also  advantageous  in  the  column,  where  the  main 
stresses  are  compressive,  but  where  cross-bending  may 
exist.  In  structures  resisting  lateral  forces  it  possesses 
advantages  over  plain  concrete  in  that  it  may  be  so  designed 
as  to  utilize  more  fully  the  strength  rather  than  the  weight 
of  the  material. 

2.   Improper  Use. 

Failures  of  reinforced-concrete  structures  are  usually  due 
to  any  one  or  a  combination  of  the  following  causes:  defec- 
tive design,  poor  material,  and  faulty  execution. 

The  defects  in  the  design  may  be  many  and  various. 
The  computations  and  assumptions  on  which  they  are  based 
may  be  faulty  and  contrary  to  the  established  principles  of 
statics  and  mechanics;  the  unit  stresses  used  may  be  exces- 
sive, or  the  details  of  the  design  defective. 

The  design  of  reinforced-concrete  structures  should  re- 
ceive at  least  the  same  careful  consideration  as  those  of 
steel,  and  only  engineers  with  sufficient  experience  and 
good  judgment  should  be  intrusted  with  such  work. 

The  computations  should  include  all  minor  details, 
which  are  sometimes  of  the  utmost  importance.  The 
design  should  show  clearly  the  size  and  position  of  the  rein- 
forcement, and  should  provide  for  proper  connections 


APPENDIX  IV  209 

between  the  component  parts,  so  that  they  cannot  be 
displaced.  As  the  connections  between  reinforced-concrete 
members  are  frequently  a  source  of  weakness,  the  design 
should  include  a  detailed  study  of  such  connections,  accom- 
panied by  computations  to  prove  their  strength. 

The  use  of  high  unit  stresses,  approaching  the  danger 
line,  is  a  defect  in  the  design  of  reinforced-concrete  structures. 

Articulated  concrete  structures,  designed  in  imitation  of 
steel  trusses,  may  be  mentioned  as  illustrating  a  question- 
able use  of  reinforced  concrete. 

Poor  material  is  sometimes  used  for  concrete,  as  well  as 
for  the  reinforcement.  The  use  of  inferior  concrete  is  gen- 
erally due  to  a  lack  of  experience  of  the  contractor  and  his 
superintendents,  or  to  the  absence  of  proper  supervision. 

An  unsuitable  quality  of  steel  for  reinforcement  is  some- 
times prescribed  in  specifications,  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
ducing the  cost.  For  steel  structures,  a  high  grade  of 
material  is  specified,  while  the  steel  used  for  reinforcing 
concrete  is  sometimes  made  of  unsuitable,  brittle  material. 

Faulty  execution  and  careless  workmanship  may  generally 
be  attributed  to  unintelligent  or  insufficient  supervision. 

While  other  engineering  structures,  upon  the  safety  of 
which  human  lives  depend,  are  generally  designed  by 
engineers  employed  by  the  owner,  and  the  contracts  let  on 
the  engineer's  design  and  specifications,  in  accordance  with 
legitimate  practice,  reinforced-concrete  structures  frequently 
are  designed  by  contractors  or  by  engineers  commercially 
interested,  and  the  contract  let  for  a  lump  sum,  regardless 
of  the  merits  of  the  design. 

The  construction  of  buildings  in  large  cities  is  regulated 
by  ordinances  or  building  laws,  and  the  work  is  inspected 
by  municipal  authorities.  For  reinforced-concrete  work, 
however,  the  limited  supervision  which  municipal  inspectors 
are  able  to  give  is  not  sufficient.  Means  for  more  adequate 
supervision  and  inspection  should,  therefore,  be  provided. 


210  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

3.   Responsibility  and  Supervision. 

The  execution  of  the  work  should  not  be  separated  from 
the  design,  since  intelligent  supervision  and  successful  execu- 
tion can  be  expected  only  when  both  functions  are  combined. 
The  engineer  who  prepares  the  design  and  specifications 
should  therefore  have  the  supervision  of  the  execution  of 
the  work. 

The  Committee  recommends  the  following  rules  for 
structures  of  reinforced  concrete,  for  the  purpose  of  fixing 
the  responsibility  and  providing  for  adequate  supervision 
during  construction. 

a.  Before  work  is  commenced,  complete  plans  shall  be 
prepared,  accompanied   by  specifications,  static  computa- 
tions, and  descriptions  showing  the   general   arrangement 
and  all  details.      The  static  computations  shall  give  the 
loads  assumed  separately,  such  as   dead   and  live   loads, 
wind  and  impact,  if  any,  and  the  resulting  stresses. 

b.  The    specifications   shall   state    the    qualities   of   the 
materials   to  be  used  for  making  the   concrete,   and  the 
manner  in  which  they  are  to  be  proportioned. 

c.  The  strength  which  the  concrete  is  expected  to  attain 
after  a  definite  period  shall  be  stated  in  the  specifications. 

d.  The  drawings  and  the  specifications  shall  be  signed  by 
the  engineer  and  the  contractor. 

e.  The   approval  of  plans  and  specifications  by  other 
authorities  shall  not  relieve  the  engineer  nor  the  contractor 
of  responsibility. 

/.  Inspection  during  construction  shall  be  made  by  com- 
petent inspectors  employed  by  and  under  the  supervision 
of  the  engineer  and  shall  cover  the  following: 

1.  The  materials. 

2.  The  correct  construction  and  erection  of  the  forms 

and  the  supports. 

3.  The  sizes,   shapes,  and  arrangement  of   the   rein- 

forcement. 


APPENDIX  IV  211 

4.  The    proportioning,   mixing,   and    placing    of    the 

concrete. 

5.  The  strength  of  the  concrete  by  tests  of  standard 

test  pieces  made  on  the  work. 

6.  Whether  the  concrete  is  sufficiently  hardened  before 

the  forms  and  supports  are  removed. 

7.  Prevention  of  injury  to  any  part  of  the  structure  by 

and  after  the  removal  of  the  forms. 

8.  Comparison  of  dimensions  of  all  parts  of  the  finished 

structure  with  the  plans. 

g.  Load  tests  on  portions  of  the  finished  structure  shall 
be  made  where  there  is  reasonable  suspicion  that  the  work 
has  not  been  properly  performed,  or  that,  through  in- 
fluences of  some  kind,  the  strength  has  been  impaired. 
Loading  shall  be  carried  on  to  such  a  point  that  twice  the 
calculated  working  stresses  in  critical  parts  are  reached,  and 
such  loads  shall  cause  no  permanent  deformations.  Load 
tests  shall  not  be  made  until  after  60  days  of  hardening. 

4.   Destructive  Agencies. 

a.  Corrosion  of  Metal  Reinforcement.     Tests   and   expe- 
rience have  proved  that  steel  embedded  in  good  concrete 
will  not  corrode,  no  matter  whether  located  above  or  below 
fresh-  or  sea-water  level.     If  the  concrete  is  porous,  so  as  to 
be-readily  permeable  to  water,  as,  where  concrete  is  laid  with 
a  very  dry  consistency,  the  metal  may  be  corroded  in  the 
presence  of  moisture. 

b.  Electrolysis.     There    is     little    accurate    information 
available  as  to  the  effect  of  electrolysis  on  concrete.     The 
few  experiments  that  are  available  seem  to  indicate  that 
concrete  may  be  damaged  through  the  leakage  of  small 
electrical   currents   through   the   mass,   particularly  where 
steel  is  embedded  in  the  concrete.     These  experiments  are 
not  conclusive,  however,  and  the  large  numbers  of  rein- 
forced-concrete  structures  subject  to  the  action  of  electroly- 


212  MATERIALS  TESTING   MANUAL 

sis,  in  which  the  metal  and  concrete  are  in  perfect  condition, 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  destructive  action  reported 
was  due  to  abnormal  conditions  which  do  not  often  occur 
in  practice. 

c.  Salt  Water.     The  data  available  concerning  the  effect 
of  sea  water  on  concrete  or  reinforced  concrete  are  incon- 
clusive and  limited  in  amount.     There  have  been  no  authen- 
tic cases  reported  where  the  disintegration  has  proved  to 
be  due  entirely  to  sea  water.     The  decomposition  that  has 
been  reported  manifests  itself  in  a  number  of  ways;  in  some 
cases  the  mortar  softens  and  crumbles;  in  others  a  crust 
forms  which  in  time  comes  off.     It  has  been  found,  however, 
that  where  concrete  is  proportioned  in  such  a  way  as  to 
secure  a  maximum  density  and  is  mixed  thoroughly  it  makes 
an  impervious  concrete,  upon  which  sea  water  has  appar- 
ently little  effect.     Seawalls  have  been  standing  for  con- 
siderable lengths  of  time  without  apparent  injury.     In  many 
of  our  harbors  where  the  water  has  been  rendered  brackish 
through  rivers  discharging  into  them,  the  action  that  has 
been  reported  has  been  at  the  water  line  and  was  probably 
due  in  part  to  freezing. 

d.  Acids.     Concrete    of    first-class    quality,    thoroughly 
hardened,  is  affected  appreciably  only  by  strong  acids  which 
seriously  injure  other  materials.     A  substance  like  manure, 
because  of  the  acid  in  its  composition,  is  injurious  to  green 
concrete,  but  after  the  concrete  has  thoroughly  hardened 
it  satisfactorily  resists  such  action. 

e.  Oils.     When  concrete  is  properly  made  and  the  sur- 
face carefully  finished  and  hardened  it  resists  the  action  of 
such  oils  as  petroleum  and  ordinary  engine  oils.     Certain 
oils  which  contain  fatty  acids  appear  to  produce  injurious 
effects. 

/.  Alkalies.  The  action  of  alkalies  on  concrete  is  prob- 
lematical. In  the  reclamation  of  arid  land,  where  the  soil 
is  heavily  charged  with  alkaline  salts,  it  has  been  found  that 
concrete,  stone,  brick,  iron,  and  other  materials  are  injured 


APPENDIX  IV  213 

under  certain  conditions.  It  would  seem  that  at  the  level 
of  the  ground  water  such  structures  are  disintegrated, 
possibly  due  to  the  effect  of  formation  of  crystals  resulting 
from  the  alternate  wetting  and  drying  of  the  surface  of  the 
concrete  at  this  ground-water  line.  Such  action  can  be 
prevented  by  the  use  of  an  insulating  coating. 

III.  MATERIALS. 

A  knowledge  of  the  properties  of  the  materials  entering 
into  concrete  and  reinforced  concrete  is  the  first  essential. 
The  importance  of  the  quality  of  the  materials  used  cannot 
be  overestimated,  and,  not  only  the  cement,  but  also  the 
aggregates,  should  be  subject  to  such  definite  requirements 
and  tests  as  will  insure  a  concrete  of  the  required  quality. 

i.   Cement. 

There  are  available,  for  construction  purposes,  Portland, 
Natural,  and  Puzzolan  or  Slag  cements.  Only  Portland 
cement  is  suitable  for  reinforced  concrete. 

a.  Portland  Cement  is  the  finely-pulverized  product  re- 
sulting from  the  calcination  to  incipient  fusion  of  an  inti- 
mate mixture  of   properly-proportioned,   argillaceous  and 
calcareous  materials.    It  has  a  definite  chemical  composi- 
tion varying  within  comparatively  narrow  limits. 

Portland  cement  should  be  used  in  reinforced-concrete  con- 
struction and  any  construction  that  will  be  subject  to  shocks 
or  vibrations  or  stresses  other  than  direct  compression. 

b.  Natural  Cement  is  the  finely-pulverized  product  re- 
sulting from  the  calcination  of  an  argillaceous  limestone  at 
a  temperature  only  sufficient  to  drive  off  the  carbonic  acid 
gas.    While  the  limestone  must  have  a  certain  composition, 
this  composition  may  vary  in  much  wider  limits  than  in  the 
case  of  Portland  cement.     Natural  cement  does  not  develop 
its  strength  as  quickly  nor  is  it  as  uniform  in  composition 
as  Portland  cement. 


214  MATERIALS   TESTING  MANUAL 

Natural  cement  may  be  used  in  massive  masonry  where 
weight  rather  than  strength  is  the  essential  feature. 

Where  economy  is  the  governing  factor,  a  comparison 
may  be  made  between  the  use  of  natural  cement  and  a 
leaner  mixture  of  Portland  cement  that  will  develop  the 
same  strength. 

c.  Puzzolan  or  Slag  Cement  is  the  finely-pulverized  product 
resulting  from  grinding  a  mechanical  mixture  of  granulated, 
basic,  blast-furnace  slag  and  hydrated  lime. 

Puzzolan  cement  is  not  nearly  as  strong,  uniform,  or  reli- 
able as  Portland  or  natural  cement,  is  not  extensively  used, 
and  never  in  important  work;  it  should  be  used  only  for 
foundation  work  underground  where  it  is  not  exposed  to  air 
or  running  water. 

d.  Specifications.     The  cement  should  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  Standard  Specifications  for  Cement  (see  Appen- 
dix II).     A  number   of   societies   have   been  working  on 
methods  for  testing  and  specifications  for  cement.     The 
best   practice   seems   to   be   represented   in   the   standard 
methods  of  testing  and  specifications  for  cement  which  are 
the  result  of  the  joint  labors  of  Special  Committees  of  the 
American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  American  Society  for 
Testing    Materials,    American    Railway    Engineering    and 
Maintenance  of  Way  Association,  American  Institute  of 
Architects,  and  others. 

2.   Aggregates. 

Extreme  care  should  be  exercised  in  selecting  the  aggre- 
gates for  mortar  and  concrete,  and  careful  tests  made  of 
the  materials  for  the  purpose  of  determining  their  qualities 
and  the  grading  necessary  to  secure  maximum  density* 
or  a  minimum  percentage  of  voids. 

*  A  convenient  coefficient  of  density  is  the  ratio  of  the  sum  of 
the  volumes  of  materials  contained  in  a  unit  volume  to  the  total 
unit  volume. 


APPENDIX  IV  215 

a.  Fine  Aggregate  consists   of   sand,   crushed   stone,   or 
gravel    screenings,    passing    when    dry    a    screen    having 
^-inch-diameter  holes.     It  should  be  preferably  of  siliceous 
material,  clean,  coarse,  free  from  vegetable  loam  or  other 
deleterious  matter. 

A  gradation  of  the  grain  from  fine  to  coarse  is  generally 
advantageous.  Mortars  composed  of  one  part  Portland 
cement  and  three  parts  fine  aggregate,  by  weight,  when 
made  into  briquettes  should  show  a  tensile  strength  of  at 
least  70  per  cent  of  the  strength  of  i :  3  mortar  of  the  same 
consistency  made  with  the  same  cement  and  standard 
Ottawa  sand.  To  avoid  the  removal  of  any  coating  on 
the  grains,  which  may  affect  the  strength,  bank  sands  should 
not  be  dried  before  being  made  into  mortar,  but  should 
contain  natural  moisture.  The  percentage  of  moisture 
may  be  determined  upon  a  separate  sample  for  correcting 
weight.  From  10  to  40  per  cent  more  water  may  be  required 
in  mixing  bank  or  artificial  sands  than  standard  Ottawa 
sand  to  produce  the  same  consistency. 

b.  Coarse  Aggregate  consists  of  inert  material,   such  as 
crushed  stone,   or  gravel,   which  is  retained  on  a  screen 
having    |-inch-diameter    holes.     The  particles   should  be 
clean,  hard,  durable,  and  free  from  all  deleterious  material. 
Aggregates     containing   soft,   flat,   or   elongated   particles 
should  be  excluded  from  important  structures.     A  gradua- 
tion of  sizes  of  the  particles  is  generally  advantageous. 

The  maximum  size  of  coarse  aggregate  shall  be  such  that 
it  will  not  separate  from  the  mortar  in  laying  and  will  not 
prevent  the  concrete  from  fully  surrounding  the  reinforce- 
ment and  filling  all  parts  of  the  forms.  Where  concrete 
is  used  in  mass,  the  size  of  the  coarse  aggregate  may  be  such 
as  to  pass  a  3-in.  ring.  For  reinforced-concrete  members 
a  size  to  pass  a  i-in.  ring,  or  a  smaller  size,  may  be  used. 

Cinder  concrete  is  not  suitable  for  reinforced-concrete 
structures,  and  may  be  safely  used  only  in  mass  for  very 
light  loads'  or  for  fireproofing. 


2l6  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

Where  cinder  concrete  is  permissible,  the  cinders  used  as 
the  coarse  aggregate  should  be  composed  of  hard,  clean, 
vitreous  clinker,  free  from  sulphides,  unburned  coal,  or 
ashes. 

3.   Water. 

The  water  used  in  mixing  concrete  should  be  free  from 
oil,  acid,  strong  alkalies,  or  vegetable  matter. 

4.   Metal  Reinforcement. 

The  Committee  recommends,  as  a  suitable  material  for 
reinforcement,  steel  filling  the  requirements  of  the  speci- 
fications adopted  by  the  American  Railway  Engineering  and 
Maintenance  of  Way  Association. 

For  the  reinforcement  of  slabs,  small  beams,  or  minor 
details,  or  for  the  prevention  of  shrinkage  cracks  where 
wire  or  small  rods  are  suitable,  material  conforming  to  the 
requirements  of  either  Specification  A  or  B  given  in  the 
Appendix  may  be  used. 

The  reinforcement  should  be  free  from  rust,  scale,  or 
coatings  of  any  character  which  would  tend  to  reduce  or 
destroy  the  bond. 

IV.   PREPARATION  AND  PLACING  OF  MORTAR  AND 
CONCRETE. 

i .   Proportions. 

The  materials  to  be  used  in  concrete  should  be  carefully 
selected,  of  uniform  quality,  and  proportioned  with  a  view 
to  securing  as  nearly  as  possible  a  maximum  density. 

a.  Unit  of  Measure.  The  unit  of  measure  should  be  the 
barrel,  which  should  be  taken  as  containing  3.8  cu.  ft.  Four 
bags  containing  94  Ibs.  of  cement  each  should  be  considered 
the  equivalent  of  one  barrel.  Fine  and  coarse  aggregate 
should  be  measured  separately  as  loosely  thrown  into  the 
measuring  receptacle. 


APPENDIX  IV  217 

b.  Relation  of  Fine  and  Coarse  Aggregates.    The  fine  and 
coarse  aggregates  should  be  used  in  such  relative  proportions 
as  will  insure  maximum  density.    In  unimportant  work 
it  is  sufficient  to   do   this  by  individual  judgment,  using 
correspondingly  higher  proportions  of  cement;  for  important 
work  these  proportions  should  be  carefully  determined  by 
density  experiments,  and  the  sizing  of  the  fine  and  coarse 
aggregates  should  be  uniformly  maintained,   or   the  pro- 
portions changed  to  meet  the  varying  sizes. 

c.  Relation  of  Cement  and  Aggregates.     For   reinforced- 
concrete  construction,  a  density  proportion  based  on  1:6 
should  generally  be  used,  i.e.,  one  part  of  cement  to  a  total 
of  six  parts  of  fine  and  coarse  aggregates  measured  separately. 

In  columns,  richer  mixtures  are  often  required,  while  for 
massive  masonry  or  rubble  concrete  a  leaner  mixture,  of 
1:9  or  even  1:12,  may  be  used.  These  proportions  should 
be  determined  by  the  strength  or  wearing  qualities  required 
in  the  construction  at  the  critical  period  of  its  use.  Expe- 
rienced judgment  based  on  individual  observation  and  tests 
of  similar  conditions  in  similar  localities  is  the  best  guide  as 
to  the  proper  proportions  for  any  particular  case. 

2.   Mixing. 

The  ingredients  of  concrete  should  be  thoroughly  mixed 
to  the  desired  consistency,  and  the  mixing  should  continue 
until  the  cement  is  uniformly  distributed  and  the  mass  is 
uniform  in  color  and  homogeneous,  since  the  maximum 
density  and  therefore  the  greatest  strength  of  a  given 
mixture  depends  largely  on  thorough  and  complete  mixing. 

a.  Measuring  Ingredients.     Methods  of  measurement  of 
the  proportions  of  the  various  ingredients,  including  the 
water,  should  be  used,  which  will  secure  separate,  uniform 
measurements  at  all  times. 

b.  Machine  Mixing.     When  the  conditions  will  permit, 
a  machine  mixer  of  a  type  which  insures  the  uniform  pro- 


2l8  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

portioning  of  the  materials  throughout  the  mass  should 
be  used,  since  a  more  thorough  and  uniform  consistency 
can  be  thus  obtained. 

c.  Hand  Mixing.    When  it  is  necessary  to  mix  by  hand, 
the  mixing  should  be  on  a  water-tight  platform,  and  especial 
precautions  should  be  taken  to  turn  the  materials  until 
they  are  homogeneous  in  appearance  and  color. 

d.  Consistency.    The   materials  should    be    mixed    wet 
enough  to  produce  a  concrete  of  such  a  consistency  as  will 
flow  into  the  forms  and  about  the  metal  reinforcement,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  can  be  conveyed  from  the  mixer  to  the 
forms  without  separation  of  the  coarse  aggregate  from  the 
mortar. 

e.  Retempering.     Retempering  mortar  or  concrete,  i.e., 
remixing  with  water  after  it  has  partially  set,  should  not 
be  permitted. 

3.   Placing  of  Concrete. 

a.  Methods.  Concrete,  after  the  addition  of  water  to 
the  mix,  should  be  handled  rapidly,  and  in  as  small  masses 
as  is  practicable,  from  the  place  of  mixing  to  the  place  of 
final  deposit,  and  under  no  circumstances  should  concrete 
be  used  that  has  partially  set  before  final  placing.  A  slow- 
setting  cement  should  be  used  when  a  long  time  is  likely  to 
occur  between  mixing  and  final  placing. 

The  concrete  should  be  deposited  in  such  a  manner  as 
will  permit  the  most  thorough  compacting,  such  as  can  be 
obtained  by  working  with  a  straight  shovel  or  slicing  tool 
kept  moving  up  and  down  until  all  the  ingredients  have 
settled  in  their  proper  place  by  gravity  and  the  surplus  water 
has  been  forced  to  the  surface. 

In  depositing  the  concrete  under  water,  special  care  should 
be  exercised  to  prevent  the  cement  from  being  floated  away, 
and  to  prevent  the  formation  of  laitance  which  hardens  very 
slowly  and  forms  a  poor  surface  on  which  to  deposit  fresh 


APPENDIX  IV  219 

concrete.  Laitance  is  formed  in  both  still  and  running 
water,  and  should  be  removed  before  placing  fresh  concrete. 

Before  placing  the  concrete,  care  should  be  taken  to  see 
that  the  forms  are  substantial  and  thoroughly  wetted  and 
the  space  to  be  occupied  by  the  concrete  is  free  from  debris. 
When  the  placing  of  the  concrete  is  suspended,  all  necessary 
grooves  for  joining  future  work  should  be  made  before  the 
concrete  has  had  time  to  set. 

When  work  is  resumed,  concrete  previously  placed  should 
be  roughened,  thoroughly  cleansed  of  foreign  material  and 
laitance,  drenched  and  slushed  with  a  mortar  consisting 
of  one  part  Portland  cement  and  not  more  than  two  parts 
fine  aggregate. 

The  faces  of  concrete  exposed  to  premature  drying  should 
be  kept  wet  for  a  period  of  at  least  seven  days. 

b.  Freezing  Weather.     Concrete  for  reinforced  structures 
should  not  be  mixed  or  deposited  at  a  freezing  temperature, 
unless  special  precautions  are  taken  to  avoid  the  use  of 
materials  containing  frost  or  covered  with  ice  crystals,  and 
to  provide  means  to  prevent  the  concrete  from  freezing  after 
being  placed  in  position  and  until  it  has  thoroughly  hardened. 

c.  Rubble  Concrete.     Where  the  concrete  is  to  be  deposited 
in  massive  work,  its  value  may  be  improved  and  its  cost 
materially  reduced  through  the  use  of  clean  stones  thor- 
oughly embedded  in  the  concrete  as  near  together  as  is 
possible  and  still  entirely  surrounded  by  concrete. 

V.   FORMS. 

Forms  should  be  substantial  and  unyielding,  so  that  the 
concrete  shall  conform  to  the  designed  dimensions  and  con- 
tours, and  should  be  tight  to  prevent  the  leakage  of  mortar. 

The  time  for  removal  of  forms  is  one  of  the  most  important 
steps  in  the  erection  of  a  structure  of  concrete  or  reinforced 
concrete.  Care  should  be  taken  to  inspect  the  concrete  and 
ascertain  its  hardness  before  removing  the  forms. 


220  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

So  many  conditions  affect  the  hardening  of  concrete  that 
the  proper  time  for  the  removal  of  the  forms  should  be 
decided  by  some  competent  and  responsible  person,  espe- 
cially where  the  atmospheric  conditions  are  unfavorable. 

VI.  DETAILS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 
i.  Joints. 

a.  Reinforcement.    Wherever  in  tension  reinforcement  it 
is  necessary  to  splice  the  reinforcing  bars,  the  length  of  lap 
shall  be  determined  on  the  basis  of  the  safe  bond  stress 
and  the  stress  in  the  bar  at  the  point  of  splice;  or  a  connec- 
tion shall  be  made  between  the  bars  of  sufficient  strength 
to  carry  the  stress.     Splices  at  points  of  maximum  stress 
should  be  avoided.     In  columns,  large  bars  should  be  prop- 
erly butted  and  spliced;  small  bars  may  be  treated  as  indi- 
cated for  tension  reinforcement,   or   their  stress  may  be 
taken  off  by  being  embedded  in  large  masses  of  concrete. 
At  foundations,  bearing  plates  should  be  provided  for  large 
bars  or  structural  forms. 

b.  Concrete.    For  concrete  construction  it  is  desirable  to 
cast  the   entire   structure  at  one  operation,  but  as  this  is 
not   always  possible,   especially  in  large   structures,   it   is 
necessary  to  stop  the  work  at  some  convenient  point.     This 
point  should  be  selected  so  that  the  resulting  joint  may  have 
the  least  possible  effect  on  the  strength  of  the  structure. 
It  is  therefore  recommended  that  the  joints  in  columns  be 
made  flush  with  the  lower  side  of  the  girders;  that  the  joints 
in  girders  be  at   a  point  midway  between  supports,  but 
should  a  beam  intersect  a  girder  at  this  point,  the  joint 
should  be  offset  a  distance  equal  to  twice  the  width  of  the 
beam;   that  the  joints  in  the  members  of  a  floor  system 
should  in  general  be  made  at  or  near  the  center  of  the  span. 

Joints  in  columns  should  be  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of 
the  column,  and  in  girders,  beams,  and  floor  slabs  perpen- 
dicular to  the  plane  of  their  surfaces. 


APPENDIX   IV  221 

2.   Shrinkage. 

Girders  should  never  be  constructed  over  freshly  formed 
columns  without  permitting  a  period  of  at  least  two  hours 
to  elapse,  thus  providing  for  settlement  or  shrinkage  in  the 
columns.  Before  resuming  work,  the  top  of  the  column 
should  be  thoroughly  cleansed  of  foreign  matter  and  laitance. 
If  the  concrete  in  the  column  has  become  hard,  the  top  should 
also  be  drenched  and  slushed  with  a  mortar  consisting  of 
one  part  Portland  cement  and  not  more  than  two  parts 
fine  aggregate  before  placing  additional  concrete. 

3.    Temperature  Changes. 

Concrete  is  sensitive  to  temperature  changes,  and  it  is 
necessary  to  take  this  fact  into  account  in  designing  and 
erecting  concrete  structures.  In  some  positions  the  con- 
crete is  subjected  to  a  much  greater  fluctuation  in  temper- 
ature than  in  others,  and  in  such  cases  joints  are  necessary. 
The  frequency  of  these  joints  will  depend,  first,  upon  the 
range  of  temperature  to  which  concrete  will  be  subjected; 
second,  upon  the  quantity  and  position  of  the  reinforcement. 
These  points  should  be  determined  and  provided  for  in  the 
design.  In  massive  work,  such  as  retaining  walls,  abut- 
ments, etc.,  built  without  reinforcement,  joints  should  be 
provided,  approximately,  every  50  ft.  throughout  the  length 
of  the  structure.  To  provide  against  the  structures  being 
thrown  out  of  line  by  unequal  settlement,  each  section  of 
the  wall  may  be  tongued  and  grooved  into  the  adjoining 
section.  To  provide  against  unsightly  cracks,  due  to  un- 
equal settlement,  a  joint  should  be  made  at  all  sharp  angles. 

4.   Fireproofing. 

The  actual  fire  tests  of  concrete  and  reinforced  concrete 
have  been  limited,  but  experience,  together  with  the  results 
of  tests  so  far  made,  indicate  that  concrete  may  be  safely 


222  MATERIALS   TESTING  MANUAL 

used  for  fireproofing  purposes.  Concrete  itself  is  incom- 
bustible and  reasonably  proof  against  fire  when  composed 
of  a  siliceous  sand  and  a  hard,  coarse  aggregate  such  as 
igneous  rock. 

For  a  fireproof  covering,  these  same  materials  may  be 
used,  or  clean,  hard-burned  cinders  may  be  substituted  for 
the  coarse  aggregate. 

The  low  rate  of  heat  conductivity  of  concrete  is  one  reason 
of  its  value  for  fireproofing.  The  dehydration  of  the  water 
of  crystallization  of  concrete  probably  begins  at  about 
500°  Fahr.,  and  is  completed  at  about  900°  Fahr.,  but 
experience  indicates  that  the  volatilization  of  the  water 
absorbs  heat  from  the  surrounding  mass,  which,  together 
with  the  resistance  of  the  air  cells,  tends  to  increase  the  heat 
resistance  of  the  concrete,  so  that  the  process  of  dehydration 
is  very  much  retarded.  The  concrete  that  is  actually  affected 
by  fire  remains  in  position  and  affords  protection  to  the 
concrete  beneath  it. 

It  is  recommended  that  in  monolithic  concrete  columns, 
the  concrete  to  a  depth  of  if  in.  be  considered  as  protective 
covering  and  not  included  in  the  effective  section. 

The  thickness  of  the  protective  coating  required  depends 
upon  the  probable  duration  of  a  fire  which  is  likely  to  occur 
in  the  structure,  and  should  be  based  on  the  rate  of  heat 
conductivity.  The  question  of  the  conductivity  ol  concrete 
is  one  which  requires  further  study  and  investigation  before 
a  definite  rate  for  different  classes  of  concrete  can  be  fully 
established.  However,  for  ordinary  conditions  it  is  recom- 
mended that  the  metal  in  girders  and  columns  be  protected 
by  a  minimum  of  2  in.  of  concrete;  that  the  metal  in  beams 
be  protected  by  a  minimum  of  if  in.  of  concrete,  and  that 
the  metal  in  floor  slabs  be  protected  by  a  minimum  of  i  in. 
of  concrete. 

It  is  recommended  that  the  corners  of  columns,  girders, 
and  beams  be  beveled  or  rounded,  as  a  sharp  corner  is  more 
seriously  affected  by  fire  than  a  round  one. 


APPENDIX  IV  ,  223 

5.  Waterproofing. 

Many  expedients  have  been  used  to  render  concrete 
impervious  to  water  under  normal  conditions,  and  also  under 
pressure  conditions  that  exist  in  reservoirs,  dams,  and 
conduits  of  various  kinds.  Experience  shows,  however, 
that  where  mortar  or  concrete  is  proportioned  to  obtain  the 
greatest  practicable  density  and  is  mixed  to  a  rather  wet 
consistency,  the  resulting  mortar  or  concrete  is  impervious 
under  ordinary  conditions.  A  concrete  of  dry  consistency 
is  more  or  less  pervious  to  water,  and  compounds  of  various 
kinds  have  been  mixed  with  the  concrete,  or  applied  as  a 
wash  to  the  surface  for  the  purpose  of  making  it  water-tight. 
Many  of  these  compounds  are  of  but  temporary  value, 
and  in  time  lose  their  power  of  imparting  impermeability 
to  the  concrete. 

In  the  case  of  subways,  long  retaining  walls,  and  reser- 
voirs, leakage  cracks  may  be  prevented  by  horizontal  and 
vertical  reinforcement,  properly  proportioned  and  located, 
provided  the  concrete  itself  is  impervious. 

Such  reinforcement  distributes  the  stretch  due  to  contrac- 
tion or  settlement  so  that  the  cracks  are  too  minute  to  per- 
mit leakage,  or  are  soon  closed  by  infiltration  of  silt. 

Asphaltic  or  coal-tar  preparations,  applied  either  as  a 
mastic  or  as  a  coating  on  felt  or  cloth  fabric,  are  used  for 
waterproofing,  and  should  be  proof  against  injury  by  liquids 
or  gases. 

6.  Surface  Finish. 

Concrete  is  a  material  of  an  individual  type,  and  should 
not  be  used  in  imitation  of  other  structural  materials.  One 
of  the  important  problems  connected  with  the  use  of  con- 
crete is  the  character  of  the  finish  of  exposed  surfaces.  The 
finish  of  the  surface  should  be  determined  before  the  con- 
crete is  placed,  and  the  work  conducted  so  as  to  make  possi- 
ble the  finish  desired.  For  many  forms  of  construction  the 


224  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

natural  surface  of  the  concrete  is  unobjectionable,  but 
frequently  the  marks  of  the  boards  and  the  flat,  dead  surface 
are  displeasing,  and  make  some  special  treatment  desirable. 
A  treatment  of  the  surface  which  removes  the  film  of  mortar 
and  brings  the  coarser  particles  of  the  concrete  into  relief 
is  frequently  used  to  remove  the  form  markings,  break  the 
monotonous  appearance  of  the  surface,  and  make  it  more 
pleasing.  Plastering  of  surfaces  should  be  avoided,  for  the 
other  methods  of  treatment  are  more  reliable  and  usually 
much  more  satisfactory.  Plastering,  even  if  carefully 
applied,  is  likely  to  peel  off  under  the  action  of  frost  or 
temperature  changes. 

VII.  DESIGN. 

i.   Massive  Concrete. 

t  In  the  design  of  massive  concrete  or  plain  concrete,  no 
account  should  be  taken  of  the  tensile  strength  of  the 
material,  and  sections  should  usually  be  so  proportioned  as 
to  avoid  tensile  stresses.  This  will  generally  be  accom- 
plished, in  the  case  of  rectangular  shapes,  if  the  line  of  pres- 
sure is  kept  within  the  middle  third  of  the  section,  but  in 
very  large  structures,  such  as  high  masonry  dams,  a  more 
exact  analysis  may  be  required.  Structures  of  massive 
concrete  are  able  to  resist  unbalanced  lateral  forces  by 
reason  of  their  weight,  hence  the  element  of  weight  rather 
than  strength  often  determines  the  design.  A  relatively 
cheap  and  weak  concrete  will  therefore  often  be  suitable 
for  massive  concrete  structures.  Owing  to  its  low  exten- 
sibility, the  contraction  due  to  hardening  and  to  temper- 
ature changes  requires  special  consideration,  and,  except 
in  the  case  of  very  massive  walls  such  as  dams,  it  is  desirable 
to  provide  joints  at  intervals  to  localize  the  effect  of  such 
contraction.  The  spacing  of  such  joints  will  depend  upon 
the  form  and  dimensions  of  the  structure -and  its  degree  of 
exposure. 


APPENDIX  IV  225 

Massive  concrete  may  well  be  used  for  piers  and  short 
columns,  in  which  the  ratio  of  length  to  least  width  is  rela- 
tively small.  Under  ordinary  conditions  this  ratio  should 
not  exceed  six,  but,  where  the  central  application  of  the  load 
is  assured,  a  somewhat  higher  value  may  safely  be  used. 

Massive  concrete  is  also  a  suitable  material  for  arches  of 
moderate  span  where  the  conditions  as  to  foundations  are 
favorable. 

2.  Reinforced  Concrete. 

By  the  use  of  metal  reinforcement  to  resist  the  principal 
tensile  stresses,  concrete  becomes  available  for  general  use 
in  a  great  variety  of  structures  and  structural  forms.  This 
combination  of  concrete  and  steel  is  particularly  advan- 
tageous in  the  beam,  where  both  compression  and  tension 
exist;  it  is  also  advantageous  in  the  column,  where  the  main 
stresses  are  compressive,  but  where  cross-bending  may  exist. 
The  theory  of  design  will  therefore  relate  mainly  to  the 
analysis  of  beams  and  columns. 

3.  General  Assumptions. 

a.   Loads.    The  loads  or  forces  to  be  resisted  consist  of: 

1.  The  dead  load,  which  includes  the  weight  of  the 

structure  and  fixed  loads  and  forces. 

2.  The  live  load,  or  the  loads  and  forces  which  are 

variable.  The  dynamic  effect  of  the  live  load 
will  often  require  consideration.  Any  allow- 
ance for  the  dynamic  effect  is  preferably  taken 
into  account  by  adding  the  desired  amount  to 
the  live  load  or  to  the  live-load  stresses.  The 
working  stresses  hereinafter  recommended  are 
intended  to  apply  to  the  equivalent  static 
stresses  so  determined. 

In  the  case  of  high  buildings  the  live  load  on 
columns  may  be  reduced  in  accordance  with  the 
usual  practice. 


226  MATERIALS   TESTING  MANUAL 

b.  Lengths  of  Beams  and  Columns.    The  span  length  for 
beams  and  slabs  shall  be  taken  as  the  distance  from  center 
to  center  of  supports,  but  shall  not  be  taken  to  exceed  the 
clear  span  plus  the  depth  of  beam  or  slab.     Brackets  shall 
not  be  considered  as  reducing  the  clear  span  in  the  sense 
here  intended. 

The  length  of  columns  shall  be  taken  as  the  maximum 
unsupported  length. 

c.  Internal  Stresses.     As  a  basis  for  calculations  relating 
to  the  strength  of  structures,  the  following  assumptions  are 
recommended: 

1.  Calculations  should  be  made  with  reference  to 

working  stresses  and  safe  loads  rather  than 
with  reference  to  ultimate  strength  and  ulti- 
mate loads. 

2.  A  plane  section  before  bending  remains  plane 

after  bending. 

3.  The  modulus  of  elasticity  of  concrete  in  compres- 

sion, within  the  usual  limits  of  working  stresses, 
is  constant.  The  distribution  of  compressive 
stresses  in  beams  is  therefore  rectilinear. 

4.  In  calculating  the  moment  of  resistance  of  beams 

the  tensile  stresses  in  the  concrete  shall  be  neg- 
lected. 

5.  Perfect  adhesion  is  assumed  between  concrete 

and  reinforcement.  Under  compressive  stresses 
the  two  materials  are  therefore  stressed  in 
proportion  tq  their  moduli  of  elasticity. 

6.  The  ratio  of  the  modulus  of  elasticity  of  steel  to 

the  modulus  of  elasticity  of  concrete  may  be 
taken  at  15. 

7.  Initial  stress  in  the  reinforcement  due  to  contrac- 

tion or  expansion  in  the  concrete  may  be  neg- 
lected. 


APPENDIX  IV  227 

It  is  appreciated  that  the  assumptions  herein  given  are 
not  entirely  borne  out  by  experimental  data.  They  are 
given  in  the  interest  of  simplicity  and  uniformity,  and 
variations  from  exact  conditions  are  taken  into  account  in 
the  selection  of  formulas  and  working  stresses. 

For  calculations  relative  to  deflections,  the  tensile  strength 
of  the  concrete  should  be  taken  into  account.  For  such 
calculations,  also,  a  value  of  8  to  12  for  the  ratio  of  the  moduli 
corresponds  more  nearly  to  the  actual  conditions  and  may 
well  be  used. 

4.    T-Beams. 

In  beam  and  slab  construction,  an  effective  bond  should 
be  provided  at  the  junction  of  the  beam  and  slab.  When  the 
principal  slab  reinforcement  is  parallel  to  the  beam,  trans- 
verse reinforcement  should  be  used  extending  over  the  beam 
and  well  into  the  slab. 

Where  adequate  bond  between  slab  and  web  of  beam  is 
provided,  the  slab  may  be  considered  as  an  integral  part  of 
the  beam,  but  its  effective  width  shall  be  determined  by  the 
following  rules: 

a.  It  shall  not  exceed  one-fourth  of  the  span  length 

of  the  beam; 

b.  Its  overhanging  width  on  either  side  of  the  web 

shall  not  exceed  4  times  the  thickness  of  the 
slab. 

In  the  design  of  T-beams  acting  as  continuous  beams, 
due  consideration  should  be  given  to  the  compressive  stresses 
at  the  support. 

5.   Floor  Slabs. 

Floor  slabs  should  be  designed  and  reinforced  as  contin- 
uous over  the  supports.  If  the  length  of  the  slab  exceeds 
1.5  times  its  width  the  entire  load  should  be  carried  by 


228  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

transverse  reinforcement.     Square  slabs  may  well  be  rein- 
forced in  both  directions.* 

The  loads  carried  to  beams  by  slabs  which  are  reinforced 
in  two  directions  will  not  be  uniformly  distributed  to  the 
supporting  beam,  and  may  be  assumed  to  vary  in  accordance 
with  the  ordinates  of  a  triangle.  The  moments  in  the  beams 
should  be  calculated  accordingly. 

6.   Continuous  Beams  and  Slabs. 

When  the  beam  or  slab  is  continuous  over  its  supports, 
reinforcement  should  be  fully  provided  at  points  of  negative 
moment.  In  computing  the  positive  and  negative  moments 
in  beams  and  slabs  continuous  over  several  supports,  due 

*  The  exact  distribution  of  load  on  square  and  rectangular 
slabs,  supported  on  four  sides  and  reinforced  in  both  directions, 
cannot  readily  be  determined.  The  following  method  of  calcu- 
lation is  recognized  to  be  faulty,  but  it  is  offered  as  a  tentative 
method  which  will  give  results  on  the  safe  side.  The  distribution 
of  load  is  first  to  be  determined  by  the  formula 


in  which  r  =  proportion  of  load  carried  by  the  transverse  rein- 
forcement, /  =  length,  and  b  =  breadth  of  slab.  For  various 
ratios  of  l/b  the  values  of  r  are  as  follows  : 

l/b  r 

i  0.50 

1.1  0.59 

1.2  0.67 
1-3  0.75 
1.4  0.80 

i-5  0.83 

Using  the  Values  above  specified,  each  set  of  reinforcement  is  to 
be  calculated  in  the  same  manner  as  slabs  having  supports  on  two 
sides  only,  but  the  total  amount  of  reinforcement  thus  determined 
may  be  reduced  25  per  cent  by  gradually  increasing  the  rod  spac- 
ing from  the  third  point  to  the  edge  of  the  slab. 


APPENDIX  IV  229 

to   uniformly   distributed   loads,    the   following   rules   are 
recommended: 

a.  That  for  floor  slabs  the  bending  moments  at  center 

wP 
and  at  support  be  taken  at  — -  for  both  dead  and 

live  loads,  where  w  represents  the  load  per  linear 
foot  and  /  the  span  length. 

b.  That  for  beams  the  bending  moment  at  center  and 

wl? 
at  support  for  interior  spans  be  taken  at  — ,  and 

wP 

for  end  spans  it  be  taken  at  —  for  center  and 

10 

adjoining    support    for    both    dead    and    live 
loads. 

In  the  case  of  beams  and  slabs  continuous  for  two  spans 
only,  or  of  spans  of  unusual  length,  more  exact  calculations 
should  be  made.  Special  consideration  is  also  required  in 
the  case  of  concentrated  loads. 

Where  beams  are  reinforced  on  the  compression  side,  the 
steel  may  be  assumed  to  carry  its  proportion  of  stress  in 
accordance  with  the  provisions  of  Section  VII,  Art.  3, 
c,  paragraph  6.  In  the  case  of  continuous  beams,  tensile 
and  compressive  reinforcement  over  supports  must  extend 
sufficiently  beyond  the  support  to  develop  the  requisite  bond 
strength. 

7.   Bond  Strength  and  Spacing  of  Bars. 

Adequate  bond  strength  should  be  provided  in  accordance 
with  the  formula  hereinafter  given.  Where  a  portion  of  the 
bars  is  bent  up  near  the  end  of  a  beam,  the  bond  stress  in 
the  remaining  straight  bars  will  be  less  than  is  represented 
by  the  theoretical  formula. 

Where  high  bond  resistance  is  required,  the  deformed  bar 
is  a  suitable  means  of  supplying  the  necessary  strength. 
Adequate  bond  strength  throughout  the  length  of  a  bar  is 


230  MATERIALS   TESTING  MANUAL 

preferable  to  end  anchorage,  but  such  anchorage  may 
properly  be  used  in  special  cases.  Anchorage  furnished  by 
short  bends  at  a  right  angle  is  less  effective  than  hooks 
consisting  of  turns  through  180  degrees. 

The  lateral  spacing  of  parallel  bars  should  not  be  less  than 
two  and  one-half  diameters,  center  to  center,  nor  should  the 
distance  from  the  side  of  the  beam  to  the  center  of  the  near- 
est bar  be  less  than  two  diameters.  The  clear  spacing 
between  two  layers  of  bars  should  not  be  less  than  \  in. 

8.   Shear  and  Diagonal  Tension. 

Calculations  for  web  resistance  shall  be  made  on  the  basis 
of  maximum  shearing  stress  as  determined  by  the  formulas 
hereinafter  given.  When  the  maximum  shearing  stresses 
exceed  the  value  allowed  for  the  concrete  alone,  web  rein- 
forcement must  be  provided  to  aid  in  carrying  the  diagonal 
tension  stresses.  This  web  reinforcement  may  consist  of 
bent  bars,  or  inclined  or  vertical  members  attached  to  or 
looped  about  the  horizontal  reinforcement.  Where  inclined 
members  are  used,  the  connection  to  the  horizontal  reinforce- 
ment shall  be  such  as  to  insure  against  slip. 

Experiments  bearing  on  the  design  of  details  of  web  rein- 
forcement are  not  yet  complete  enough  to  allow  more  than 
general  and  tentative  recommendations  to  be  made.  It  is 
well  established,  however,  that  a  very  moderate  amount  of 
reinforcement,  such  as  is  furnished  by  a  few  bars  bent  up  at 
small  inclination,  increases  the  strength  of  a  beam  against 
failure  by  diagonal  tension  to  a  considerable  degree ;  and  that 
a  sufficient  amount  of  web  reinforcement  can  readily  be 
provided  to  increase  the  shearing  resistance  to  a  value  from 
three  or  more  times  that  found  when  the  bars  are  all  hori- 
zontal and  no  web  reinforcement  is  used.  The  following 
allowable  values  for  the  maximum  shearing  stress  are  there- 
fore recommended,  based  on  the  working  stresses  of  Section 
VIII,  page  233. 


APPENDIX  IV  231 

a.  For  beams  with  horizontal  bars,  only  40  Ibs.  per 

sq.  in. 

b.  For  beams  in  which  a  pait  of  the  horizontal  rein- 

forcement is  used  in  the  form  of  bent-up  bars, 
arranged  with  due  respect  to  the  shearing 
stresses,  a  higher  value  may  be  allowed,  but  not 
to  exceed  60  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 

c.  For  beams  thoroughly  reinforced  for  shear,  a  value 

not  exceeding  120  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 

In  the  calculation  of  web  reinforcement  to  provide  the 
strength  required  under  c,  the  concrete  may  be  counted 
upon  as  carrying  one- third  of  the  shear.  The  remainder 
is  to  be  provided  for  by  means  of  metal  reinforcement  con- 
sisting of  bent  rods  or  stirrups,  but  preferably  both.  The 
requisite  amount  of  such  reinforcement  may  be  estimated 
on  the  assumption  that  the  entire  shear  on  a  section,  less 
the  amount  assumed  to  be  carried  by  the  concrete,  is  carried 
by  the  reinforcement  in  a  length  of  beam  equal  to  its  depth. 

The  longitudinal  spacing  of  stirrups  or  bent  rods  shall  not 
exceed  three-fourths  the  depth  of  the  beam. 

It  is  important  that  adequate  bond  strength  be  provided 
to  develop  fully  the  assumed  strength  of  all  shear  reinforce- 
ment. 

Inasmuch  as  small  deformations  in  the  horizontal  steel 
tend  to  prevent  the  formation  of  diagonal  cracks,  a  beam 
will  be  strengthened  against  diagonal  tension  failure  by  so 
arranging  the  horizontal  reinforcement  that  the  unit  stresses 
at  points  of  large  shear  shall  be  relatively  low. 

9.   Columns. 

It  is  recommended  that  the  ratio  of  the  unsupported 
length  of  a  column  to  its  least  width  be  limited  to  15. 

The  effective  area  of  the  column  shall  be  taken  as  the 
area  within  the  protective  covering,  as  defined  in  Section  VI, 
Art.  4;  or,  in  the  case  of  hooped  columns  or  columns  rein- 


232  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

forced  with  structural  shapes,  it  shall  be  taken  as  the  area 
within  the  hooping  or  structural  shapes. 

Columns  may  be  reinforced  by  means  of  longitudinal  rods, 
by  bands  or  hoops,  by  bands  or  hoops  together  with  longi- 
tudinal bars,  or  by  structural  forms  which  in  themselves  are 
sufficiently  rigid  to  act  as  columns.  The  general  effect  of 
bands  or  hoops  is  to  increase  greatly  the  "toughness"  of  the 
column  and  its  ultimate  strength,  but  hooping  has  little 
effect  upon  its  behavior  within  the  limit  of  elasticity.  It 
thus  renders  the  concrete  a  safer  and  more  reliable  material, 
and  should  permit  the  use  of  a  somewhat  higher  working 
stress.  The  beneficial  effects  of  "toughening"  are  ade- 
quately provided  by  a  moderate  amount  of  hooping,  a  larger 
amount  serving  mainly  to  increase  the  ultimate  strength 
and  the  possible  deformation  before  ultimate  failure. 

The  following  recommendations  are  made  for  the  relative 
working  stresses  in  the  concrete  for  the  several  types  of 
columns: 

a.  Columns  with  longitudinal   reinforcement  only, 

the  unit  stress  recommended  for  axial  com- 
pression in  Section  VIII,  Article  3. 

b.  Columns  with  reinforcement  of  bands  or  hoops, 

as  hereinafter  specified,  stresses  20  per  cent 
higher  than  given  for  a. 

c.  Columns  reinforced  with  not  less  than  i  per  cent 

and  not  more  than  4  per  cent  of  longitudinal 
bars  and  with  bands  or  hoops,  stresses  45  per 
cent  higher  than  given  for  a. 

d.  Columns  reinforced  with  structural  steel  column 

units  which  thoroughly  encase  the  concrete  core, 
stresses  45  per  cent  higher  than  given  for  a. 

In  all  cases,  longitudinal  steel  is  assumed  to  carry  its 
proportion  of  stress  in  accordance  with  Article  3.  The 
hoops  or  bands  are  not  to  be  counted  upon  directly  as  adding 
to  the  strength  of  the  column. 


APPENDIX  IV  233 

Bars  composing  longitudinal  reinforcement  shall  be 
straight,  and  shall  have  sufficient  lateral  support  to  be 
securely  held  in  place  until  the  concrete  has  set. 

Where  bands  or  hoops  are  used,  the  total  amount  of  such 
reinforcement  shall  not  be  less  than  i  per  cent  of  the  volume 
of  the  column  disclosed.  The  clear  spacing  of  such  bands  or 
hoops  shall  not  be  greater  than  one-fourth  the  diameter 
of  the  enclosed  column.  Adequate  means  must  be  pro- 
vided to  hold  bands  or  hoops  in  place  so  as  to  form  a  column, 
the  core  of  which  shall  be  straight  and  well  centered. 

Bending  stresses  due  to  eccentric  loads  must  be  provided 
for  by  increasing  the  section  until  the  maximum  stress  does 
not  exceed  the  values  above  specified. 

10.   Reinforcing  for  Shrinkage  and  Temperature  Stresses. 

Where  large  areas  of  concrete  are  exposed  to  atmospheric 
conditions,  the  changes  of  form  due  to  shrinkage  (resulting 
from  hardening)  and  to  action  of  temperature  are  such  that 
large  cracks  will  occur  in  the  mass,  unless  precautions  are 
taken  to  so  distribute  the  stresses  as  either  to  prevent  the 
cracks  altogether  or  to  render  them  very  small.  The  size 
of  the  cracks  will  be  directly  proportional  to  the  diameter 
of  the  reinforcing  bars  and  inversely  proportional  to  the 
percentage  of  reinforcement  and  also  to  its  bond  resistance 
per  unit  of  surface  area.  To  be  most  effective,  therefore, 
reinforcement  should  be  placed  near  the  surface  and  well 
distributed,  and  a  form  of  reinforcement  used  which  will 
develop  a  high  bond  resistance. 

VIII.  WORKING  STRESSES. 
i.   General  Assumptions. 

The  following  working  stresses  are  recommended  for 
static  loads.  Proper  allowances  for  vibration  and  impact 
are  to  be  added  to  live  loads  where  necessary  to  produce 


234  MATERIALS   TESTING  MANUAL 

an  equivalent  static  load  before  applying  the  unit  stresses 
in  proportioning  parts. 

In  selecting  the  permissible  working  stress  to  be  allowed 
on  concrete,  we  should  be  guided  by  the  working  stresses 
usually  allowed  for  other  materials  of  construction,  so  that 
all  structures  of  the  same  class,  but  composed  of  different 
materials,  may  have  approximately  the  same  degree  of 
safety. 

The  stresses  for  concrete  are  proposed  for  concrete  com- 
posed of  one  part  Portland  cement  and  six  parts  of  aggre- 
gates, capable  of  developing  an  average  compressive  strength 
of  2000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  at  28  days,  when  tested  in  cylinders 
8  in.  in  diameter  and  16  in.  long,  under  laboratory  condi- 
tions of  manufacture  and  storage,  using  the  same  consist- 
ency as  is  used  in  the  field.  In  considering  the  factors 
recommended  with  relation  to  this  strength,  it  is  to  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  strength  at  28  days  is  by  no  means  the 
ultimate  which  will  be  developed  at  a  longer  period,  and 
therefore  they  do  not  correspond  with  the  real  factor  of 
safety.  On  concretes,  in  which  the  material  of  the  aggre- 
gate is  inferior,  all  stresses  should  be  proportionally  reduced, 
and  similar  reduction  should  be  made  when  leaner  mixes 
are  to  be  used.  On  the  other  hand,  if,  with  the  best  quality 
of  aggregates,  the  richness  is  increased,  an  increase  may  be 
made  in  all  working  stresses  proportional  to  the  increase 
in  compressive  strength  at  28  days,  but  this  increase  shall 
not  exceed  25  per  cent. 

2.   Bearing. 

When  compression  is  applied  to  a  surface  of  concrete 
larger  than  the  loaded  area,  a  stress  of  32.5  per  cent  of  the 
compressive  strength  at  28  days,  or  650  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  on 
the  above-described  concrete,  may  be  allowed.  This 
pressure  is  probably  unnecessarily  low  when  the  ratio  of 
the  stressed  area  to  the  whole  area  of  the  concrete  is  much 


APPENDIX  IV  235 

below  unity,  but  is  recommended  for  general  use  rather 
than  a  variable  unit  based  upon  this  ratio. 

3.   Axial  Compression. 

For  concentric  compression  on  a  plain  concrete  column 
or  pier,  the  length  of  which  does  not  exceed  12  diameters 
22.50  per  cent  of  the  compressive  strength  at  28  days,  or 
450  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  on  2ooo-lb.  concrete,  may  be  allowed. 

For  other  forms  of  columns,  the  stresses  obtained  from  the 
ratios  given  in  Section  VII,  Article  9,  may  govern. 

4.   Compression  in  Extreme  Fiber. 

The  extreme  fiber  stress  of  a  beam,  calculated  on  the 
assumption  of  a  constant  modulus  of  elasticity  for  concrete 
under  working  stresses,  may  be  allowed  to  reach  32.5  per  cent 
of  the  compressive  strength  at  28  days,  or  650  Ibs.  per  sq. 
in.  for  2ooo-lb.  concrete.  Adjacent  to  the  support  of  con- 
tinuous beams,  stresses  15  per  cent  higher  may  be  used. 

5.   Shear  and  Diagonal  Tension. 

Where  pure  shearing  stress  occurs,  that  is,  uncombined 
with  compression  normal  to  the  shearing  surface,  and  with 
all  tension  normal  to  the  shearing  plane  provided  for  rein- 
forcement, a  shearing  stress  of  6  per  cent  of  the  compressive 
strength  at  28  days,  or  120  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  on  2ooo-lb.  con- 
crete, may  be  allowed.  Where  the  shear  is  combined  with 
an  equal  compression,  as  on  a  section  of  a  column  at  45 
degrees  with  the  axis,  the  stress  may  equal  one-half  the 
compressive  stress  allowed.  For  ratios  of  compressive  stress 
to  shear  intermediate  between  o  and  i,  proportionate  shear- 
ing stresses  shall  be  used. 

In  calculations  on  beams  in  which  diagonal  tension  is 
considered  to  be  taken  by  the  concrete,  the  vertical  shear- 
ing stresses  should  not  exceed  2  per  cent  of  the  compressive 
strength  at  28  days,  or  40  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  for  2ooo-lb.  concrete. 


236  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

6.   Bond. 

The  bonding  stress  between  concrete  and  plain  reinforcing 
bars  may  be  assumed  at  4  per  cent  of  the  compressive 
strength  at  28  days,  or  80  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  for  2ooo-lb.  concrete; 
in  the  case  of  drawn  wire,  2  per  cent  or  40  Ibs.  on  2ooo-lb. 
concrete. 

7.   Reinforcement. 

The  tensile  stress  in  steel  should  not  exceed  16,000  Ibs. 
per  sq.  in.  The  compressive  stress  in  reinforcing  steel 
should  not  exceed  16,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  or  15  times  the 
working  compressive  stress  in  the  concrete. 

In  structural  steel  members,  the  working  stresses  adopted 
by  the  American  Railway  Engineering  and  Maintenance 
of  Way  Association  are  recommended. 

8.   Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

The  value  of  the  modulus  of  elasticity  of  concrete  has  a 
wide  range,  depending  upon  the  materials  used,  the  age, 
the  range  of  stresses  between  which  it  is  considered,  as  well 
as  other  conditions.  It  is  recommended  that  in  all  compu- 
tations it  be  assumed  as  one-fifteenth  that  of  steel,  as, 
while  not  rigorously  accurate,  this  assumption  will  give 

safe  results. 

RICHARD  L.  HUMPHREY, 

JANUARY,  1909.  Secretary. 

W.  K.  HATT,         A.  N.  TALBOT, 

R.  W.  LESLEY,     J.  W.  SCHAUB, 

J.  R.  WORCESTER. 


APPENDIX  V. 


STANDARD  SPECIFICATIONS  OF  THE  AMERICAN 
SOCIETY  FOR  TESTING  MATERIALS  FOR  STRUC- 
TURAL STEEL  FOR  BRIDGES.* 

(ADOPTED  BY  THE  SOCIETY,  AUGUST  16,  1909.) 

1.  MANUFACTURE.     Steel  shall  be  made  by  the  open- 
hearth  process. 

2.  CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION.     The  chemical  and  physical 
properties  shall  conform  to  the  following  limits: 


Elements  Considered. 

Structural 
Steel. 

Rivet  Steel. 

Steel  Castings. 

Phosphorus,  max.  {  j^j;  '  ;  ;  ; 
Sulphur   max  

o  .  04  per  cent 
o  .  06  per  cent 
0.05  per  cent 

o  .  04  per  cent 
o  .  04  per  cent 
o  .  04  per  cent 

o  .  05  per  cent 
o  .  08  per  cent 
0.05  percent 

Ultimate  tensile  strength,          ) 
Pounds  per  sq.  in  ) 
Elongation:   Min.   per   cent  in  "1 

(    Desired 
\     60,000 
1,500,000* 

Desired 
50,000 
1,500,000 

Not  less  than 
65,000 

8  ins.  (Fig.  67)  I 
Elongation:  Min.  per  cent  in  2  in. 
(Fig  68) 

Ult.  tens.  str. 

22 

Ult.  tens.  str. 

18 

Character  of  fracture  

Silky 

Silky 

Silky  or  fine 

Cold  bend  without  fracture  

180°  flat  t 

180°  flatj 

granular 
9Q°d=3t 

*  See  par.  n.     t  See  pars.  12,  13,  and  14.     J  See  par.  15. 

The  yield  point,  as  indicated  by  the  drop  of  beam,  shall  be 
recorded  in  the  test  reports. 

3.   RETESTS.     If  the  ultimate  strength  varies  more  than 
4000  Ibs.  from  that  desired,  a  retest  may  be  made  at  the 

*  Authorized  reprint  from  Proceedings  of  the  American  So- 
ciety for  Testing  Materials,  Vol.  9,  pages  37-41. 

237 


238  MATERIALS   TESTING  MANUAL 

discretion  of  the  inspector,  on  the  same  gauge,  which  to  be 
acceptable  shall  be  within  5000  Ibs.  of  the  desired  ultimate. 

4.  CHEMICAL    COMPOSITION.     Chemical    determinations 
of    the   percentages   of   carbon,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  and 
manganese  shall  be  made  by  the  manufacturer  from  a  test 
ingot  taken  at  the  time  of  the  pouring  of  each  melt  of  steel, 
and  a  correct  copy  of  such  analysis  shall  be  furnished  to  the 
engineer  or  his  inspector.     Check  analyses  shall  be  made 
from  finished  material,  if  called  for  by  the  purchaser,  in  which 
case  an  excess  of  25  per  cent  above  the  required  limits  will 
be  allowed. 

5.  PLATES,  SHAPES,  AND  BARS.     Specimens  for   tensile 
and  bending  tests  for  plates,  shapes,  and  bars  shall  be  made 
by  cutting  coupons  from  the  finished  product,  which  shall 
have  both  faces  rolled  and  both  edges  milled  to  the  form 
shown  in  Fig.  67;  or  with  both  edges  parallel,  or  they  may 


K--About-3~»»       tij     k---Parallel-section-not-lese-than-9-  — 


•l;x> 


K ' -A-bout-18---         X 

Fig.  67.  —  Flat  Test  Piece 

be  turned  to  a  diameter  of  f  in.  for  a  length  of  at  least 
9  ins.,  with  enlarged  ends. 

6.  RIVETS.     Rivet  rods  shall  be  tested  as  rolled. 

7.  PINS  AND  ROLLERS.     Specimens  shall  be  cut  from  the 
finished  rolled  or  forged  bar  in  such  a  manner  that  the  center 
of  the  specimen  shall  be  i  in.  from  the  surface  of  the  bar. 
The  specimen  for  tensile  test  shall  be  turned  to  the  form 
shown  by  Fig.  68.     The  specimen  for  bending  test  shall  be 
i  in.  by  |  in.  in  section. 

8.  STEEL  CASTINGS.     The  number  of  tests  will  depend 
on  the  character  and  importance  of  the  castings.     Speci- 


APPENDIX   V  239 

!<_ -v/f— 


2-"-- 

Fig.  68.  —  Small  Turned  Test  Piece 

mens  shall  be  cut  cold  from  coupons  molded  and  cast  on 
some  portion  of  one  or  more  castings  from  each  melt  or  from 
the  sink  heads,  if  the  heads  are  of  sufficient  size.  The 
coupon  or  sink  head,  so  used,  shall  be  annealed  with  the 
casting  before  it  is  cut  off.  Test  specimens  to  be  of  the 
form  prescribed  for  pins  and  rollers. 

9.  CONDITIONS  FOR  TESTS.     Material  which  is  to  be  used 
without  annealing  or  further  treatment  shall  be  tested  in 
the  condition  in  which  it  comes  from  the  rolls.     When 
material  is  to  be  annealed  or  otherwise  treated  before  use, 
the  specimens  for  tensile  tests  representing  such  material 
shall  be  cut  from   properly  annealed  or   similarly-treated 
short  lengths  of  the  full  section  of  the  bar. 

10.  NUMBER  OF  TESTS.    At  least  one  tensile  and  one 
bending  test  shall  be  made  from  each  melt  of  steel  as  rolled. 
In  case  steel  differing  f  in.  and  more  in  thickness  is  rolled 
from  one  melt,  a  test  shall  be  made  from  the  thickest  and 
thinnest  material  rolled. 

11.  ELONGATION.     For   material    less  than  &  in.   and 
more  than  f  in.  in  thickness  the  following  modifications 
will  be  allowed  in  the  requirements  for  elongation : 

(a)  For  each  TS  in.  in  thickness  below  TS  in.,  a  deduction 
of  2\  will  be  allowed  from  the  specified  percentage. 

(b)  For  each  |  in.  in  thickness  above  f  in.,  a  deduction 
of  i  will  be  allowed  from  the  specified  percentage. 


240  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

12.  BENDING  TESTS.    Bending  tests  may  be  made  by 
pressure  or  by  blows.     Plates,  shapes,  and  bars  less  than 
i  in.  thick  shall  bend  as  called  for  in  paragraph  2. 

13.  FULL-SIZED    BENDS.     Full-sized    material    for    eye- 
bars  and  other  steel  i  in.  thick  and  over,  tested  as  rolled, 
shall  bend  cold  180  degrees  around  a  pin  the  diameter  of 
which  is  equal  to  twice  the  thickness  of  the  bar,  without 
fracture  on  the  outside  of  bend. 

14.  TESTS  FOR  ANGLES.    Angles  f  in.  and  less  in  thick- 
ness shall  open  flat,  and  angles  \  in.  and  less  in  thickness 
shall  bend  shut,  cold,  under  blows  of  a  hammer,  without 
sign  of  fracture.     This  test  will  be  made  only  when  required 
by  the  inspector. 

15.  TESTS  ON  RIVET  STEEL.    Rivet  steel,  when  nicked  and 
bent  around  a  bar  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  rivet  rod,  shall 
give  a  gradual  break  and  a  fine,  silky,  uniform  fracture. 

1 6.  FINISH.     Finished  material  shall  be  free  from  injuri- 
ous seams,  flaws,  cracks,  defective  edges,  or  other  defects, 
and  have  a  smooth,  uniform,  workmanlike  finish.     Plates 
36  ins.  in  width  and  under  shall  have  rolled  edges. 

17.  MARKING.   Every  finished  piece  of  steel  shall  have  the 
melt  number  and  the  name  of  the  manufacturer  stamped  or 
rolled  upon  it.    Steel  for  pins  and  rollers  shall  be  stamped  on 
the  end.     Rivet  and  lattice  steel  and  other  small  parts  may 
be  bundled  with  the  above  marks  on  an  attached  metal  tag. 

18.  REJECTIONS.     Material   which,    subsequent    to    the 
above  tests  at  the  mills  and  its  acceptance  there,  develops 
weak  spots,  brittleness,  cracks,  or  other  imperfections,  or  is 
found  to  have  injurious  defects,  will  be  rejected  at  the  shop 
and  shall  be  replaced  by  the  manufacturer  at  his  own  cost. 

19.  PERMISSIBLE  VARIATIONS.    A  variation  in  cross  sec- 
tion or  weight  of  each  piece  of  steel  of  more  than  2\  per 
cent  from  that  specified  will  be  sufficient  cause  for  rejection, 
except  in  case  of  sheared  plates,  which  will  be  covered  by 
the  following  permissible  variations,  which  are  to  apply 
to  single  plates. 


APPENDIX  V 


241 


WHEN  ORDERED  TO  WEIGHT. 

Plates  12%  Ibs.  per  sq.  ft.  or  heavier  : 

(c)  Up  to  100  ins.  wide,  i\  per  cent  above  or  below  the 

prescribed  weight. 

(d)  100  ins.  wide  and  over,  5  per  cent  above  or  below. 

Plates  under  12 1  Ibs.  per  sq.  ft.  : 

(e)  Up  to  75  ins.  wide,  2\  per  cent  above  or  below. 

(f)  75  ins.  and  up  to  100  ins.  wide,  5  per  cent  above  or 

3  per  cent  below. 

(g)  100  ins.  wide  and  over,  10  per  cent  above  or  3  per 

cent  below. 

WHEN  ORDERED  TO  GAUGE. 

Plates  will  be  accepted  if  they  measure  not  more  than 
o.oi  in.  below  the  ordered  thickness. 

An  excess  over  the  normal  weight,  corresponding  to  the 
dimensions  on  the  order,  will  be  allowed'  for  each  plate, 
if  not  more  than  shown  in  the  following  tables,  i  cu.  in. 
of  rolled  steel  being  assumed  to  weigh  0.2833  Ib. 

Plates  i  in.  and  over  in  thickness : 


Width  of  Plate. 

Thickness 
Ordered. 

Nominal 
Weights. 

Up  to  75 
Inches. 

75  Inches 
and  up  to 
100  Inches. 

loo  Inches 
and  up  to 
115  Inches. 

Over  115 
Inches. 

Inches. 

Lbs.  per 
Sq.  Ft. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

1 

IO    2O 

IO 

14 

18 

T<f 

12.75 

8 

12 

16 

t 

I5-30 

7 

10 

13 

17 

T5 

17-85 

6 

8 

10 

13 

^ 

20.40 

5 

7 

9 

12 

A 

22.95 

61 

II 

t 

25-50 

4 

6 

8 

10 

Overf 

3* 

5 

61 

9 

242  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

Plates  under  \  in.  thickness : 


Width  of  Plate. 

Thickness 
Ordered. 

Nominal 
Weights. 

Up  to  50 
Inches. 

50  Inches 
and  up  to 
70  Inches. 

Over  70 
Inches. 

Inches. 

Lbs.  per  Sq.  Ft. 

Per  cent. 

Percent. 

Per  cent. 

|   up  to  & 

5.  10  to    6.37 

IO 

15 

2O 

&  up  to  & 

6.  37  to    7.65 

8| 

M* 

17 

^  up  to  | 

7.65  tO  10.20 

7 

IO 

15 

20.  INSPECTING  AND  TESTING.     The  purchaser  shall  be 
furnished  complete  copies  of  mill  orders,  and  no  material 
shall  be  rolled,  nor  work  done,  before  the  purchaser  has  been 
notified  where  the  orders  have  been  placed,  so  that  he  may 
arrange  for  the  inspection. 

21.  The    manufacturer    shall    furnish    all    facilities    for 
inspecting  and  testing  the  weight  and  quality  of  all  material 
at  the  mill  where  it  is  manufactured.     He  shall  furnish  a 
suitable  testing  machine  for  testing  the  specimens,  as  well 
as  prepare  the  pieces  for  the  machine  free  of  cost. 

22.  When  an  inspector  is  furnished  by  the  purchaser  to 
inspect  material  at  the  mills,  he  shall  have  full  access  at 
all  times  to  all  parts  of  mills  where  material  to  be  inspected 
by  him  is  being  manufactured. 


APPENDIX   VI. 


STANDARD  SPECIFICATIONS  OF  THE  AMERICAN 
SOCIETY  FOR  TESTING  MATERIALS  FOR  STRUC- 
TURAL STEEL  FOR  BUILDINGS.* 

(ADOPTED  BY  THE  SOCIETY,  AUGUST  16,  1909.) 

1.  MANUFACTURE.     Structural  steel  may  be  made  by 
either  the  open-hearth  or  Bessemer  process. 

Rivet  steel  and  plate  or  angle  material  over  f  in.  thick, 
which  is  to  be  punched,  shall  be  made  by  the  open-hearth 
process. 

2.  CHEMICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES.     The  chemi- 
cal and  physical  properties  shall  conform  to  the  following 
limits: 


Properties  Considered. 

Structural 
Steel. 

Rivet  Steel, 
Open- 
hearth. 

oio  per  cent 

o  .  06  per  cent 

o  .  06  per  cent 

Ultimate  tensile  strength,  Ibs.  per  sq.  in  
Yield  point  

55,000-65,000 
1  ult.  tens.  str. 
1,400,  %oo* 

48,000-58,000 
\  ult.  tens.  str. 
1,400,000 

Character  of  fracture  
Cold  bend  without  fracture  | 

Ult.  tens.  str. 
Silky 
180°  to  diam. 
of  I  thickness 

Ult.  tens.  str. 
Silky 

|    180°  flat 

*  See  paragraph  7. 

For  the  purposes  of  these  specifications,  the  yield  point 
shall  be  determined  by  the  careful  observation  of  the  drop 
of  the  beam  or  halt  in  the  gauge  of  the  testing  machine. 

3.  CHEMICAL  DETERMINATIONS.  In  order  to  determine 
if  the  material  conforms  to  the  chemical  limitations  pre- 

*  Authorized  reprint  from  Proceedings  of  the  American  Society 
for  Testing  Materials,  Vol.  9,  pages  47-50. 

243 


244  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

scribed  in  paragraph  2  herein,  analysis  shall  be  made  by 
the  manufacturer  from  a  test  ingot  taken  at  the  time  of 
pouring  of  each  melt  or  blow  of  steel,  and  a  correct  copy  of 
such  analysis  shall  be  furnished  to  the  engineer  or  his 
inspector. 

4.  FORM  OF  SPECIMENS.    Specimens  for  tensile  and  bend- 
ing tests  shall  be  made  by  cutting  coupons  from  the  finished 
product,  which  shall  have  both  faces  rolled  and  both  edges 
milled  to  the  form  shown  by  Fig.  67  (page  238);  or  with 
both  edges  parallel;  or  they  may  be  turned  to  a  diameter 
of  f  in.  for  a  length  of  at  least  9  ins.,  with  enlarged  ends. 

(a)  For  material  more  than  f  in.  thick  the  bending  test 
specimen  may  be  i  in.  by  \  in.  in  section. 

(b)  Rivet  rounds  and  small  rolled  bars  shall  be  tested  as 
rolled. 

5.  ANNEALED  SPECIMENS.    Material  which  is  to  be  used 
without  annealing  or  further  treatment  shall  be  tested  in 
the  condition  in  which  it  comes  from  the  rolls.     When 
material  is  to  be  annealed  or  otherwise  treated  before  use, 
the  specimens  for  tensile  tests,  representing  such  material, 
shall  be  cut  from  properly  annealed  or  similarly  treated 
short  lengths  of  the  full  section  of  the  bar. 

6.  NUMBER  OF  TESTS.     At  least  one  tensile  and  one 
bending  test  shajl  be  made  from  each  melt  or  blow  of  steel 
as  rolled.     In  case  steel  differing  f  in.  and  more  in  thickness 
is  rolled  from  one  melt  or  blow,  a  test  shall  be  made  from 
the  thickest  and  thinnest  material  rolled.     Should  either  of 
these  test  specimens  develop  flaws,  or  should  the  tensile  test 
specimen  break  outside  of  the  middle  third  of  its  gauged 
length,  it  may  be  discarded  and  another  test  specimen  sub- 
stituted therefor.     In  case  a  tensile  test  specimen  does  not 
meet  the  specification,  additional  tests  may  be  made. 

(c)  The  bending  test  may  be  made  by  pressure  or  by 
blows. 


APPENDIX  VI  245 

7.  MODIFICATIONS  IN  ELONGATION  FOR  THIN  AND  THICK 
MATERIAL.     For  material  less  than  &  in.  or  more  than  f  in. 
in  thickness,  the  following  modifications  shall  be  made  in 
the  requirements  for  elongation: 

(d)  For  each  increase  of  |  in.  in  thickness  above  £  in.,  a 
deduction  of  i  shall  be  made  from  the  specified  percentage 
of  elongation. 

(e)  For  each  decrease  of  &  in.  in  thickness  below  fs  in.  a 
deduction  of  2\  shall  be  made  from  the  specified  percentage 
of  elongation. 

(/)  For  pins,  the  required  percentage  of  elongation  shall 
be  5  less  than  that  specified  in  paragraph  2,  as  determined 
on  a  test  specimen,  the  center  of  which  shall  be  i  in.  from 
the  surface. 

8.  FINISH.     Finished  material   must   be  free  from   in- 
jurious seams,  flaws,  or  cracks,  and  have  a  workmanlike 
finish. 

9.  BRANDING.    Test  specimens  and  every  finished  piece 
of  steel  shall  be  stamped  with  melt  or  blow  number,  except 
that  small  pieces  may  be  shipped  in  bundles  securely  wired 
together,  with  the  melt  or  blow  number  on  a  metal  tag 
attached. 

10.  VARIATION  IN  WEIGHT.    A  variation  in  cross  section 
or  weight  of  each  piece  of  steel  of  more  than  i\  per  cent 
from  that  specified  will  be  sufficient  cause  for  rejection, 
except  in  case  of  sheared  plates,  which  will  be  covered  by 
the  following  permissible  variations,  which  are  to  apply 
to  single  plates. 

WHEN  ORDERED  TO  WEIGHT. 

Plates  \2\lbs.  per  sq.  ft.  or  heavier : 

(g)  Up  to  100  ins.  wide,  2\  per  cent  above  or  below  the 

prescribed  weight. 
(h)  100  ins.  wide  and  over,  5  per  cent  above  or  below. 


246 


MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 


Plates  under  12%  Ibs.  per  sq.  ft.  : 

(i)  Up  to  75  ins.  wide,  2^  per  cent  above  or  below. 
(/)  75  ins.  and  up  to  100  ins.  wide,  5  per  cent  above  or 

3  per  cent  below. 

(&)  loo  ins.  wide  and  over,  10  per  cent  above  or  3  per 
cent  below. 

WHEN  ORDERED  TO  GAUGE. 

Plates  will  be  accepted  if  they  measure  not  more  than 
o.oi  in.  below  the  ordered  thickness. 

Plates  I  in.  and  over  in  thickness : 


Thickness 

Nominal 

Width  of  Plate. 

Ordered. 

Weights. 

Up  to  75 
Inches. 

75  Inches 
and  up  to 
100  Inches. 

TOO  Inches 
and  up  to 
115  Inches. 

Over  115 
Inches. 

Inches. 

Lbs.  per 
Sq.  Ft. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

1 

10.  2O 

12-75 

IO 

8 

14 
12 

18 
16 

I 

!5-30 

7 

10 

13 

17 

A 

17-85 

6 

8 

IO 

13 

\ 

20.40 

5 

7 

9 

12 

A 

22-95 

4* 

6£ 

81 

II 

f 

25-50 

4 

6 

8 

IO 

Overf 

3i 

5 

6^ 

9 

Plates  under  \  in.  in  thickness : 


Width  of  Plate. 

Thickness 
Ordered. 

Nominal 
Weights. 

Up  to  50 
Inches. 

50  Inches 
and  up  to 
70  Inches. 

Over  70 
Inches. 

Inches. 

Lbs.  per  Sq.  Ft. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

£  up  to  ^ 

5.  10  to    6.37 

IO 

15 

20 

^j  Up  to  fk 

6.  37  to    7.65 

8| 

«i 

17 

^  up  to  £ 

7.65  tO  10.20 

7 

IO 

15 

APPENDIX  VI  247 

An  excess  over  the  nominal  weight  corresponding  to  the 
dimensions  on  the  order  will  be  allowed  for  each  plate,  if 
not  more  than  that  shown  in  the  preceding  tables,  i  cu.  in. 
of  steel  being  assumed  to  weigh  0.2833  Ib. 

ii.  INSPECTION.  The  inspector  representing  the  pur- 
chaser shall  have  all  reasonable  facilities  afforded  to  him  by 
the  manufacturer  to  satisfy  him  that  the  finished  material 
is  furnished  in  accordance  with  these  specifications. 

All  tests  and  inspections  shall  be  made  at  the  place  of 
manufacture,  prior  to  shipment. 


APPENDIX  VII. 


STANDARD  SPECIFICATIONS  OF  THE  AMERICAN 
SOCIETY  FOR  TESTING  MATERIALS  FOR  OPEN- 
HEARTH  BOILER  PLATE  AND  RIVET  STEEL.* 

(ADOPTED  BY  THE  SOCIETY,  AUGUST  16,  1909.) 

1.  MANUFACTURE.     Steel  shall  be  made  by  the  open- 
hearth  process. 

2.  CHEMICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES.    There  shall 
be  three  classes  of  open- hearth  boiler  plate  steel;  namely, 
flange  steel,  fire-box  steel,  and  extra  soft  steel,  which  shall 
conform  to  the  following  limits  in  chemical  and  physical 
properties: 


Properties  Considered. 

Flange  Steel. 

Fire-box 
Steel. 

Extra  Soft 
Steel. 

Phosphorus  shall  not  (Acid  
exceed  \Basic  .... 
Sulphur  shall  not  exceed  
Manganese  
Ult.  tensile  strength,  pounds  per 
sq.  in  
Yield  point,  in  pounds  per  sq.  in., 
shall  not  be  less  than 

o  .  06  per  cent 
0.04  per  cent 
o  .  05  per  cent 
0.30  to  0.60% 

55,000-65,000 
^  ult.  tens.  str. 

o  .  06  per  cent 
0.03  per  cent 
0.04  per  cent 
0.30  to  0.50% 

52,000-62,000 

5  ult.  tens.  str. 

>o.04  per  cent 

0.04  per  cent 
0.30  to  0.50% 

45,000-55,000 

5  ult.  tens.  str. 

Elongation,  per  cent  in  8  ins.  ,         / 

1,500,000 

1,500,000 

1,500,000* 

shall  not  be  less  than  \ 
Cold  bend        )                               f 

Ult.  tens.  str. 
180°  flat 

Ult.  tens.  str. 
180°  flat 

Ult.  tens.  str. 
180°  flat 

Quench  bend  j    '                     '  '  \ 

*  But  need  not  exceed  30  per  cent. 

(a)  Yield  Point.     For  the  purposes  of  these  specifications, 
the  yield  point  shall  be  determined  by  the  careful  obser- 

*  Authorized  reprint  from  Proceedings  of  the  American  Society 
for  Testing  Materials,  Vol.  9,  pages  51-55. 

248 


APPENDIX  VII  249 

vation  of  the  drop  of  the  beam  or  halt  in  the  gauge  of  the 
testing  machine. 

3.  BOILER  RIVET  STEEL.     Steel  for  boiler  rivets  shall  be 
of  the  extra  soft  class,  as  specified  in  paragraph  2. 

4.  MODIFICATIONS  IN  ELONGATION  FOR  THIN  AND  THICK 
MATERIAL.     For  material  less  than  TS  in.  or  more  than 
|  in.  in  thickness,  the  following  modifications  shall  be  made 
in  the  requirements  for  elongation: 

(b)  For  each  increase  of  f  in.  in  thickness  above  f  in., 
a  deduction  of  i  shall  be  made  from  the  specified  percentage 
of  elongation. 

(c)  For  each  decrease  of  TG  in.  in  thickness  below  A  in., 
a  deduction  of  2  \  shall  be  made  from  the  specified  percentage 
of  elongation. 

5.  CHEMICAL  DETERMINATIONS.    In  order  to  determine 
if  the  material  conforms  to  the  chemical  limitations  pre- 
scribed in  paragraph  2  herein,  analysis  shall  be  made  by 
the  manufacturer  from  a  test  ingot  taken  at  the  time  of 
the  pouring  of  each  melt  of  steel,  and  a  correct  copy  of  such 
analysis  shall  be  furnished  to  the  engineer  or  his  inspector. 
A  check  analysis  may  be  made  by  the  purchaser  or  his 
representative,  from  a  broken  tensile-test  specimen  repre- 
senting each  heat  of  flange  or  extra  soft  steel  on  an  order, 
and  for  each  plate  as  rolled  of  fire-box  steel,  in  which  cases 
an  excess  of  25  per  cent  above  the  required  limits  in  phos- 
phorus and  sulphur  will  be  allowed. 

6.  TEST  SPECIMEN  FOR  TENSILE  TEST.    The  standard 
tensile-test  specimen  of  8-in.  gauged  length  shall  be  used  to 
determine  the  physical  properties  specified  in  paragraphs  2 
and  3.    The  standard  shape  of  the  tensile- test  specimen  for 
sheared  plates  shall  be  as  shown  in  Fig.  67  (page  238). 

For  other  material  the  tensile-test  specimen  may  be  the 
same  as  for  sheared  plates,  or  it  may  be  planed  or  turned 
parallel  throughout  its  entire  length,  and  in  all  cases  where 


250  MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 

possible  two  opposite  sides  of  the  test  specimens  shall  be 
rolled  surfaces. 

Rivet  rounds  and  small  rolled  bars  shall  be  tested  of  full 
size  as  rolled. 

7.  TEST  SPECIMENS  FOR  BENDING  TESTS.    The  bending- 
test  specimen  shall  be  i£  ins.  wide,  if  possible,  and  for  all 
material  f  in.  or  less  in  thickness  the  test  specimen  shall 
have  the  natural  rolled  surface  on  two  opposite  sides;  but 
for  material  more  than  f  in.  thick,  the  bending-test  speci- 
men may  be  \  in.  thick.     The  sheared  edges  of  bending- 
test  specimens  shall  be  milled  or  planed.     The  bending  test 
may  be  made  by  pressure  or  by  blows.     The  cold  bending 
test  shall  be  made  on  material  in  the  condition  in  which  it 
is  to  be  used,  and  prior  to  the  quenched  bending  test,  the 
specimen  shall  be  heated  to  a  light  cherry  red  as  seen  in 
the  dark,  and  quenched  in  water,  the  temperature  of  which 
is  between  80°  and  90°  Fahr. 

Rivet  rounds  shall  be  tested  of  full  size  as  rolled. 

8.  HOMOGENEITY  TESTS.     For  fire-box  steel  a  sample 
taken  from  a  broken  tensile-test  specimen  shall  not  show  any 
single  seam  or  cavity  more  than  \  in.  long  in  either  of  the 
three  fractures  obtained  on  the  test  for  homogeneity  as 
described  below. 

(d)  The  homogeneity  test  is  made  as  follows:  A  portion 
of  the  broken  tensile-test  specimen  is  either  nicked  with  a 
chisel  or  grooved  on  a  machine,  transversely  about  T$  in. 
deep  in  three  places  about  2  ins.  apart.  The  first  groove 
should  be  made  on  one  side,  2  ins.  from  the  square  end  of 
the  specimen;  the  second  2  ins.  from  it  on  the  opposite  side; 
and  the  third,  2  ins.  from  the  last,  and  on  the  opposite  side 
from  it.  The  test  specimen  is  then  put  in  a  vise,  with  the 
first  groove  about  i  in.  above  the  jaws,  care  being  taken  to 
hold  it  firmly.  The  projecting  end  of  the  test  specimen 
is  then  broken  off  by  means  of  a  hammer,  a  number  of  light 
blows  being  used,  and  the  bending  being  away  from  the 
groove.  The  specimen  is  broken  at  the  other  two  grooves 


APPENDIX  VII  251 

in  the  same  way.  The  object  of  this  treatment  is  to  open 
and  render  visible  to  the  eye  any  seams  due  to  failure  to 
weld  up,  or  to  foreign  interposed  matter,  or  cavities  due  to 
gas  bubbles  in  the  ingot.  After  rupture,  one  side  of  the 
fracture  is  examined,  a  pocket  lens  being  used  if  necessary, 
and  the  length  of  the  seams  and  cavities  is  determined. 

9.  NUMBER  OF  TESTS.     Three  test  pieces  shall  be  fur- 
nished from  each  plate  as  it  is  rolled;  one  for  tension,  one  for 
cold  bending,  and  one  for  quench  bending  test.     For  rivet 
rods,  two  tensile-test  specimens  and  two  cold  bending-  and 
two  quench  bending-test  specimens  shall  be  furnisjjed  from 
each  melt.     In  case  any  one  of  these  develops  flaws,  or 
should  a  tensile-test  specimen  break  outside  of  the  middle 
third  of  its  gauged  length,  it  may  be  discarded  and  another 
test  specimen  substituted  therefor. 

10.  PERMISSIBLE  VARIATIONS.    A  variation  in  cross  sec- 
tion or  weight  of  each  piece  of  steel  of  more  than  2\  per 
cent  from  that  specified  will  be  sufficient  cause  for  rejection 
except  in  case  of  sheared  plates,  which  will  be  covered  by 
the  following  permissible  variations,  which  are  to  apply  to 
single  plates. 

WHEN  ORDERED  TO  WEIGHT. 
Plates  \2\  Ibs.  per  sq.ft.  or  heavier: 

(e)  Up  to  100  ins.  wide,  2\  per  cent  above  or  below  the 

prescribed  weight. 
(/)  100  ins.  wide  and  over,  5  per  cent  above  or  below. 

Plates  under  12 \  Ibs.  per  sq.  ft.: 

(g)  Up  to  75  ins.  wide,  i\  per  cent  above  or  below. 
(ti)  75  ins.  and  up  to  100  ins.  wide,  5  per  cent  above 

or  3  per  cent  below. 
(i)  100  ins.  wide  and  over,  10  per  cent  above  or  3  per 

cent  below. 


252 


MATERIALS  TESTING  MANUAL 


WHEN  ORDERED  TO  GAUGE. 

Plates  will  be  accepted  if  they  measure  not  more  than 
o.oi  in.  below  the  ordered  thickness. 

An  excess  over  the  normal  weight  corresponding  to  the 
dimensions  on  the  order  will  be  allowed  for  each  plate,  if 
not  more  than  that  shown  in  the  following  tables,  i  cu.  in. 
of  rolled  steel  being  assumed  to  weigh  0.2833  Ib. 

Plates  £  in.  and  over  in  thickness: 


Width  c 

>f  Plate. 

Thickness 
Ordered. 

Nominal 
Weights. 

Up  to  75 
Inches. 

75  Inches 
and  up  to 
100  Inches. 

loo  Inches 
and  up  to 
115  Inches. 

Over  115 
Inches. 

Inches. 

Lbs.  per 
Sq.  Ft. 

IO   2O 

Per  cent. 
IO 

Per  cent. 
14 

Per  cent. 
18 

Per  cent. 

\ 

12    71? 

8 

12 

16 

Over  f 

I5-30 
17.85 
2O.4O 
22.Q5 
25-50 

7 
6 

'* 

4 
?i 

IO 

8 

k 

6 

r 

13 
IO 

I* 

8 
6* 

17 
13 
12 
II 
10 

Plates  under  \  in.  in  thickness: 


Width  of  Plate. 

Thickness 
Ordered. 

Nominal 
Weights. 

Up  to  50 
Inches. 

50  Inches 
and  up  to 

Over  70 
Inches. 

70  Inches. 

Inches. 

Lbs.  per  Sq.  Ft. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

\  up  to  ^ 

5.10  to  6.37 

IO 

15 

20 

&  up  to  ^ 

6.37  to  7.65 

8* 

12* 

17 

T^  up  to  i 

7.65  tO  10.20 

7 

10 

15 

ii.  BRANDING.    Each  plate  shall  be  distinctly  stamped 
with  its  heat  or  slab  number,  and  with  the  name  of  the 


APPENDIX  VH  253 

manufacturer,  grade,  and  lowest  tensile  strength  specified. 
Each  test  specimen  shall  be  distinctly  stamped  with  the 
heat  or  slab  number  which  it  represents. 

Rivet  steel  may  be  shipped  in  securely  fastened  bundles 
with  the  melt  number  stamped  on  a  metal  tag  attached. 

12.  FINISH.     All   finished  material   shall  be   free   from 
injurious  surface  defects  and  laminations,  and  must  have  a 
workmanlike  finish. 

13.  INSPECTION.    The  inspector  representing  the  pur- 
chaser shall  have  all  reasonable  facilities  afforded  to  him  by 
the  manufacturer  to  satisfy  him  that  the  finished  material 
is  furnished  in  accordance  with  these  specifications.    All 
tests  and  inspections  shall  be  made  at  the  place  of  manu- 
facture, prior  to  shipment. 


APPENDIX  VIII. 


REQUIREMENTS  FOR  PAVING  BRICK. 

The  results  of  rattler  tests*  upon  paving  brick  have  shown, 
for  the  N.  B.  M.  A.  standard  test,  losses  varying  from  less 
than  20  per  cent  to  more  than  35  per  cent  for  brick  which 
have  given  satisfactory  service. 

The  requirements  f  recommended  by  Committee  D  of  the 
American  Society  for  Testing  Materials  for  compression, 
transverse,  absorption,  and  freezing  and  thawing  tests, 
when  tested  in  accordance  with  the  methods  |  which  they 
recommend,  are  as  follows: 


Modulus  of  Rupture. 

Average. 

Minimum. 

For  samples  thoroughly  dry  

Pounds. 
400 

Pounds. 
32<? 

For  samples  thoroughly  saturated  
For  samples  subjected  to  freezing  and 
thawing  process 

275 
27< 

225 

22< 

Ultimate  Compressive  Strength. 

Average. 

Minimum. 

For  samples  thoroughly  dry 

Lbs.  per 
Sq.  Inch. 

3OOO 

Lbs.  per 
Sq.  Inch. 
2^OO 

For  samples  thoroughly  saturated  
For  samples  subjected  to  freezing  and 
thawing  process            

2500 
2  ZOO 

2OOO 
2OOO 

*  See  Baker's  "  Roads  and  Pavements." 
t  Proceedings  of  the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials, 
Vol.  9,  page  134. 

}  See  Problems  Ei,  £2,  £3,  £4. 
254 


APPENDIX  VIII  255 

ABSORPTION.  The  absorption  shall  not  average  higher 
than  15  per  cent,  and  in  no  case  shall  it  exceed  20  per  cent. 

FREEZING  AND  THAWING.  The  freezing  and  thawing 
tests  shall  not  cause  cracking  or  serious  spalling  in  any 
of  the  bricks  tested,  nor  cause  serious  disintegration  of  the 
material. 


INDEX. 


A .  PAGE 

Abrasion  Cylinders 42 

Abrasion  Test  of  Broken  Stone  (Problem) 146 

Absorption  of  Brick  (Problem) 137 

(Requirement  for  Paving  Brick) 255 

Accelerated  Test  of  Cement  (Method) 194 

(Problem) '. 69 

(Requirements) 200 

Acids,  Effect  on  Concrete 212 

Adaptability  of  Concrete 207 

Aggregates  for  Concrete  (Problem) 156 

(Report  on  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.) 213 

Alkalies,  Effect  on  Concrete. 211 

Alkalies  in  Cement  (Analysis) 204 

Alumina  in  Cement  (Analysis) 201 

Am.  Soc.  C.  E.  Methods  for  Testing  Cement 176 

Report  on  Concrete 206 

Am.  Soc.  for  Test.  Mat.  Specifications  for  Cement 194 

Am.  Soc.  for  Test.  Mat.  Specifications  for  Steel  for  Boiler 

Plates  and  Rivets 247 

Am.  Soc.  for  Test.  Mat.  Specifications  for  Steel  for  Bridges  236 

Am.  Soc.  for  Test.  Mat.  Specifications  for  Steel  for  Buildings  242 

Analysis  of  Cement  (Method) 200 

(Recommendation) 178 

Anhydrous  Sulphuric  Acid  in  Cement  (Analysis) 205 

Annealed  Specimens,  Steel  for  Buildings 244 

Apparatus,  Care  of 2 

Description  of 12 

for  Ductility  Test  of  Asphalt 169 

for  Shearing  Test  of  Wood 126 

for  Weight  of  Cement 13 

257 


25$  INDEX 

PAGE 

Asphalt,  Ductility  of  (Problem) 169 

Loss  on  Heating  (Problem) 167 

Penetration  Test  (Problem) 163 

Percentage  in  Paving  Mixture  (Problem) 161 

Purity  of  (Problem) 159 

Residual  Coke  (Problem) 165 

B. 

Balances 14 

Beams,  Concrete  (Am.  Soc.  C.  E.  Report) 225 

Deformation  Test  (Problem) 105 

Flexural  Test  (Problem) 103 

Wooden,  Flexural  Test  (Problem) 131 

Bearing  for  Concrete  (Am.  Soc.  C.  E.  Report) 234 

Bending  Test  o'f  Iron  and  Steel  (Problem) 116 

Steel  for  Boiler  Plates  and  Rivets 250 

Steel  for  Bridges 240 

Steel  for  Buildings 244 

Bitumen,  Percentage  in  Paving  Mixtures  (Problem) 161 

Boiler  for  Accelerated  Tests 193 

Bond  Strength  of  Steel  in  Concrete  (Am.  Soc.  C.  E.  Report)  229 

Bond  Stress  of  Steel  in  Concrete  (Problem) 97 

(Report) 236 

Boulogne  Test  for  Plasticity  (Problem) 62 

Branding  Steel 240,  245,  252 

Brick,  Absorption  Requirement 255 

Absorption  Test  (Problem) 137 

Compression  Test  (Problem) 139 

Compressive  Strength  (Requirements) 254 

Freezing  and  Thawing  (Problem) 141 

(Requirements) 255 

Modulus  of  Rupture  (Problem) 135 

(Requirements) 254 

Rattler  Test  (Problem) 143 

Specifications 254 

Tests 135 

Transverse  Test 135 

Briquettes,  Asphalt,  Mold  for 169 

Cement,  Form  of 187 


INDEX  259 

PAGE 

Briquettes,  Cement,  Molding  (Method  of  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.) .  189 

Molds 187 

Storage 190 

Broken  Stone,  Abrasion  Test  (Problem) 146 

Percentage  of  Voids  (Problem) 152 

Sieve  Analysis  (Problem) 154 

Specific  Gravity  (Problem) 149 

Toughness  Test  (Problem) 148 

C. 

Calipers,  Micrometer 46 

Carbon  in  Asphalt  (Problem) 165 

Cast  Iron ,  Transverse  Test  (Problem) 119 

Cement,  Alkalies  in  (Analysis) 205 

Alumina  and  Iron  in  (Analysis) 202 

Am.  Soc.  C.  E.  Methods  of  Testing 177 

Am.  Soc.  for  Test.  Mat.  Specifications 195 

Anhydrous  Sulphuric  Acid  in  (Analysis) 205 

(Requirement) 200 

Chemical  Analysis 201 

Consistency  for. 182 

Constancy  of  Volume  (Method) 192,  196 

(Requirement) 200 

Definitions 213 

Fineness  of  (Method) 182 

(Problem) 55 

(Requirement) 197,  199 

Lime  in  (Analysis) 203 

Loss  on  Ignition 206 

Magnesia  in  (Analysis) 204 

(Requirement) 200 

Methods  of  Testing 177 

Mortar,  Compressive  Strength  of  (Problem) 85 

Consistency  for 182 

Effect  of  Methods  of  Molding  (Problem).  81 

Tensile  Strength  (Problem) 77 

Natural,  Definition 213 

Methods  of  Testing 177 

(Requirements) 197 


260  INDEX 

PAGE 

Cement,  Neat,  Consistency  for 182 

Tensile  Strength  of  (Problem) .74 

Variation  in  Strength  with  Amount  of  Water 

(Problem) 78 

Plasticity  of,  Boulogne  Method  (Problem) 62 

Vicat  Method  (Problem) 64 

Portland,  Definition 213 

Puzzolan,  Definition 214 

Sampler. 12 

Sampling 177 

Silica  in  (Analysis) 202 

Slag,  Definition 2 14 

Soundness  of,  Accelerated  Test  (Problem) 69 

Cold  Pat  Test  (Problem) 67 

(Methods  of  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.) 192 

(Requirements) 198,  200 

Specific  Gravity  of  (Method) 179 

(Problem) 58 

(Requirement) 199 

Specifications  (Am.  Soc.  for  Test.  Mat.) 195 

(Recommendation) 214 

Sulphur  in  (Analysis) 205 

Sulphuric  Acid  in  (Method) 205 

(Requirement) 200 

Tensile  Strength  (Method) 191 

(Problems) 74-83 

(Requirements) 198,  199 

Testing  Machines 26-41 

Tests  of 55 

Time  of  Setting  (Method) : 185 

(Problem) 71 

(Requirements) 198,  199 

Weight  of  (Problem) 57 

Chemical  Analysis  of  Cement  (Methods) 201 

(Requirements) 200 

Steel  (Requirements) 237,  243,  248 

Clips  for  Cement  Testing  Machines 191 

Coke  in  Asphalt  (Problem) 165 

Cold  Bend  Test  of  Iron  and  Steel .  .  116 


INDEX  261 

PAGE 

Cold  Pat  Test  (Method) 192 

(Problem) 67 

(Requirements) 198,  200 

Columns,  Concrete  (Problem) 108 

(Report  of  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.) 231 

Composition  of  Steel  for  Boiler  Plates  and  Rivets 248 

Bridges 237 

Buildings 243 

Compression,  Allowable,  for  Concrete 235 

Compression  Test  of  Brick  (Problem) 139 

Concrete  (Problem) 91 

Wood  (Problem) 129 

Compressive   Strength   of    Cement   and    Cement    Mortar 

(Problem) ,85 

Compressometers.     (See  Deformeters.) 

Concrete,  Adaptability  (Report  of  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.) 207 

Aggregates,  Proportions  for  (Problem) 156 

'  (Report  of  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.) 214 

Beams,  Deformation  Test  (Problem) 105 

Flexural  Test  (Problem) 103 

Bond  with  Steel 229 

Column  Test  (Problem) 108 

Compression  Test  (Problem) 91 

Construction,  Allowable  Stresses 232 

Beams  and  Columns 226,  231 

Bearing  Allowable 234 

Bond  Strength 229 

Compression  Allowable 235 

Design  of  (Report  of  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.)  224 

Diagonal  Tension 230,  235 

Fiber  Stress  Allowable 235 

Fireproofing 221 

Joints 220 

Loads 225 

Responsibility  and  Supervision  .  .  .•  210 

Shear 230 

Stress  in  Steel 236 

Destructive  Agencies 211 

Effect  of  Acids ..  212 


262  INDEX 

PAGE 

Concrete,  Effect  of  Alkalies 212 

Salt  Water 212 

Fireproofing 221 

Forms 219 

Improper  Use 208 

Mixing  (Problem) 87 

(Report) 217 

Modulus  of  Elasticity  (Problem) 101 

Placing 218 

Proper  Use 207 

Reinforcement  for 216,  220 

Report  of  Committee  of  Am.  Soc.  C.  E 207 

Rubble 219 

Shearing  Test  (Problem) 93 

Shrinkage 221 

Specimens,  Preparation  of  (Problem) 87 

Surface  Finish 223 

Temperature  Changes 221 

Water  for 216 

Waterproofing 223 

Consistency  for  Cement  Mortar 184 

Constancy  of  Volume  of  Cement 192,  196,  200 

Continuous  Beams  and  Slabs 228 

Corrosion  of  Steel  in  Concrete 211 

Crushing  Test  of  Concrete 91 

D. 

Deflection  Instruments 50 

Deflection  of  Concrete  Beams,  Measurement  of 103 

Deformation  of  Concrete  Beams 105 

Deformeters 47 

Design  of  Concrete  Construction  (Report) 224 

Destructive  Agencies  for  Concrete 211 

Diagonal  Tension  in  Concrete 230,  235 

Dividers,  Multiplying 54 

Ductility  Machine  for  Asphalt 169 

Ductility  of  Asphalt  (Problem) 159 

Duplex  Compression  Micrometer 50 

Deformeter 51 

Micrometer  Extensometer 49 


INDEX  263 

E.  PAGE 

Elongation  of  Steel  for  Boiler  Plates  and  Rivets 248 

Bridges 237 

Buildings 243 

Equipment,  Assignment  of 5 

Extensometers 47 

F. 

Failures  of  Concrete  (Discussion) 208 

Fiber  Stress  for  Concrete  Beams 235 

Fineness  of  Cement  (Method) 181 

(Problem) 55 

(Requirement) 197,  199 

Finish  for  Concrete  Surfaces 223 

of  Steel 253 

Fireproofing  for  Concrete  Construction 221 

Fixed  Carbon  in  Asphalt  (Problem) 165 

Flasks,  Displacement  (for  Specific  Gravity) -.  .  .  .  18 

Le  Chatelier 179 

Flexural  Test  of  Wood 131 

Floor  Slabs 227 

Form  of  Briquettes  for  Cement  Tests 187 

Forms  for  Concrete 219 

Freezing  and  Thawing  Test  of  Brick  (Problem) 141 

G. 

Gauge,  Laying-off  and  Per-cent 46 

Gillmore's  Needles 20 

Gravel,  Percentage  of  Voids  (Problem) 152 

Sieve  Analysis  (Problem) 154 

Specific  Gravity  (Problem) 149 

Grips,  Proper  Arrangement  of 5 

H. 

Heating,  Loss  for  Asphalt 167 

Heister  Impact  Machine 39 

Homogeneity  Test  of  Boiler  Plate  and  Rivet  Steel 250 

Hydraulic  Testing  Machines 32 


264  INDEX 

PAGE 

Impact  Test  of  Iron  and  Steel  (Problem) 121 

Wood  (Problem) 134 

Testing  Machines 38 

Inspection  and  Testing  of  Steel 242,  247,  253 

Iron,  Cast,  Transverse  Test  (Problem) 119 

in  Cement  (Analysis) 202 

and  Steel,  Cold  Bend  Test  (Problem) 116 

Modulus  of  Elasticity  (Problem) 112 

Shearing  Test  (Problem) 114 

Tensile  Test  (Problem) no 

Tests  of no 

Torsion  Test  (Problem) 117 

J. 

Joints  in  Reinforced  Concrete 220 

L. 

Laying-off  Gauge 46 

Le  Chatelier  Flask 179 

Lime  in  Cement  (Analysis) 203 

Loads  for  Concrete  Construction 225 

Loss  on  Heating,  for  Asphalt  (Problem) 167 

Loss  on  Ignition,  for  Cement 206 

M. 

Macadam  Rock  Abrasion  Cylinders 45 

Impact  Machine 41 

Machines,  Molding 23 

Testing,  Cement 27 

Hydraulic 32 

Impact 38 

Torsion „ 37 

Transverse 36 

Use  of 3 

Vertical  Screw 33 

Magnesia  in  Cement  (Analysis) 204 

(Requirement) 200 


INDEX  265 

PAGE 

Marking  Steel 240,  245,  252 

Test  Specimens 9 

Materials,  Assignment  of 7 

Waste 7 

Measuring  Glasses : 18 

Methods i,  177 

Micrometer  Deformeters 48-52 

Extensometers 49,  51 

Micrometers 46 

Mixing  Concrete 87,  217 

Mortar  for  Cement  Tests 62,  64,  187 

Moist  Closet 26,  190 

Modulus  of  Elasticity  of  Concrete  (Problem) 101 

Modulus  of  Elasticity  of  Concrete  (Report  of  Am.  Soc. 

C.  E.) 226,  236 

Modulus  of  Elasticity  of  Iron  and  Steel  (Problem) 112 

Modulus  of  Rupture  for  Paving  Brick 254 

Molding  Briquettes  for  Cement  Tests 74,  81,  83,  189 

Molding,  Comparison  of  Methods  for  Neat  Cement  (Prob- 
lem)         83 

Effect  of  Methods,  i  :  3  Mortar  (Problem) 81 

Machines 23 

Molds 21 

for  Briquettes  of  Asphalt 169 

for  Cement  Tests 21,  188 

for  Concrete  Beams 23 

for  Concrete  Shear  Specimens 94 

Mortar,  Consistency  for 182 

1:3,  Effect  of  Methods  of  Molding  (Problem). ...       81 

i  :  3,  Tensile  Strength  (Problem) 77 

Motors,  Instructions  for  Starting 3 

Multiplying  Dividers 54 

N. 

Natural  Cement  (Definition) 213 

(Requirements) 196 

Needles,  Gillmore's 20 

Vicat 19,  183 

Normal  Test  for  Soundness  of  Cement 67,  192 


266  INDEX 


-  PAGE 

Paving  Brick,  Absorption  (Requirement)  ................  255 

(Test)  ........................  137 

Compressive  Strength  (Requirement)  ......  254 

(Test)  ..............  139 

Freezing  and  Thawing  (Requirement)  ......  255 

(Test)  .............  141 

Modulus  of  Rupture  (Requirement)  ........  255 

(Test)  ...............  135 

Rattler  Test  ............................  143 

Requirements  ...........................  254 

Penetration  Test  of  Asphalt  ...........................  163 

Per-cent  Gauge  .......................................  46 

Percentage  of  Bitumen  in  Paving  Mixtures  (Problem)  .....  161 

Water  for  Cement  Mortars  ................  184 

Placing  Concrete  (Report)  .............................  218 

Plasticity  of  Cement  by  Boulogne  Method  (Problem)  .....  62 

Vicat  Method  (Problem)  .  .......  64 

Portland  Cement  (Definition)  ..........................  213 

Puzzolan  Cement  (Definition)  ..........................  214 

Preparation  of  Reports  ................................  9 

Problems,  Assignment  of  ..............................  8 

Proportions  for  Concrete  Aggregates  (Problem)  ..........  156 

Purity  of  Asphalt  (Problem)  ...........................  159 

R. 

Rattler  Test  of  Brick  (Problem)  ........................  143 

Reinforcement,  Allowable  Stress  in  .....................  236 

for  Concrete  (Report)  ...................  216 

for  Shrinkage  and  Temperature  Stresses.  .  .  233 

Rejection  of  Steel  ....................................  240 

Reports,  Preparation  of  .....  ..........................  9 

Responsibility  and  Supervision  of  Concrete  Construction  .  .  210 

Rubble  Concrete  (Am.  Soc.  C.  E.  Report)  ...............  219 

S. 

Salt  Water,  Effect  on  Concrete  .........................  212 

Sampler  for  Cement  ..................................  12 

Sampling  Cement,  Instructions  .........................  177 


INDEX  267 

PAGE 

Sand-glass 14 

Sand,  Percentage  of  Voids  (Problem) 152 

Sieve  Analysis  (Problem) 154 

Specific  Gravity  (Problem) 149 

Standard,  for  Cement  Tests 186 

Scales  and  Balances 14 

Setting  of  Cement  (Method) '185 

(Problem) 71 

(Requirement) 198,  199 

Shear  in  Concrete  (Am.  Soc.  C.  E.  Report) 230,  235 

Shearing  Test  of  Concrete  (Problem) .  93 

Iron  and  Steel  (Problem) 114 

Wood  (Problem) 126 

Shrinkage  of  Concrete 221 

Sieve  Analysis  of  Sand,  Gravel  and  Broken  Stone  (Prob- 
lem)    154 

Sieves 12 

Silica  in  Cement  (Analysis) 202 

Slabs,  Floor 227 

Slag  Cement  (Definition) 214 

Soundness  of  Cement  (Problem) 67,  69 

(Requirements) 198,  200 

(Tests  of  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.) 192 

Spacing  of  Reinforcing  Bars 230 

Specific  Gravity  of  Cement  (Method) 179 

(Problem) 58 

(Requirement) 199 

Flasks 18,  179 

of  Sand,  Gravel  and  Broken  Stone 149 

Specifications  for  Cement 195 

Steel  for  Boiler  Plates  and  Rivets 248 

Bridges 237 

Buildings 243 

Specimens  for  Bending  Tests  of  Steel 240,  244,  250 

Bond  Test  of  Concrete  and  Steel 97 

Shearing  Test  of  Concrete 93 

Wood 126 

Tensile  Test  of  Iron  and  Steel no 

Wood 124 


268  INDEX 

PAGE 

Specimens,  Preparation  of,  Concrete 87 

Standard  Sand  for  Cement  Tests 185 

Steel,  Bond  with  Concrete  (Problem) 97 

Cold  Bend  Test  (Problem) . .  .' 116 

in  Concrete,  Corrosion 211 

Impact  Test  (Problem) 121 

Modulus  of  Elasticity  (Problem) 112 

Reinforcement  for  Concrete 216,  220 

Shearing  Test  (Problem) 114 

Specifications  for 237,  243,  248 

Stone,  Abrasion  Test  (Problem) 146 

Broken,  Sieve  Analysis  (Problem) 154 

Crushing  Test  (Problem) 145 

Percentage  of  Voids  (Problem) ; 152 

Specific  Gravity  (Problem) 149 

Toughness  Test  (Problem) 148 

Storage  of  Briquettes 190 

Tank  for  Briquettes 26 

Strength  of  Cement  Mortar  in  Compression  (Problem) ....  85 

i  :  3  Mortar,  Effect  of  Molding  (Problem) 81 

i  :  3  Mortar  in  Tension  (Problem) 77 

Neat  Cement  (Problem) 74,  83 

Strength  of  Neat  Cement,  Variation  with  Amount  of  Water 

(Problem) 78 

Sulphur  in  Cement  (Analysis) 205 

Sulphuric  Acid  in  Cement  (Analysis) 200,  205 

Surface  for  Concrete  Finish 223 

T. 

Tank  for  Storage  of  Briquettes 26 

Tee-Beams 227 

Temperature  Changes  in  Concrete 221 

Stresses,  Reinforcement  for 233 

Tensile  Strength  of  Cement  (Problem) 74 

Tensile  Strength  of  Cement,  Variation  with  Water  (Problem)  78 

Tensile  Strength  of  i  :  3  Mortar  (Problem) 77 

Tensile  Strength  of  i  :  3  Mortar,  Effect  of  Molding  (Prob- 
lem)    81 

Tensile  Test  of  Steel  and  Iron  (Problem) no 


INDEX  269 

PAGE 

Tensile  Test  of  Wood  (Problem) 1 24 

Testing  Machines,  Cement 27 

Hydraulic 32 

Impact 38 

Torsion 37 

Transverse 36 

Use  of 3 

Vertical  Screw 33 

Tests  of  Asphalt 159 

Brick 135 

Cement 55 

Concrete 87 

Gravel .  . 145 

Iron no 

Sand 145 

Steel no 

Stone 145 

Wood 124 

Time  of  Setting  of  Cement  (Problem) 71 

(Requirements) 198,  199 

(Tests  of  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.) 184 

Torsion  Test  of  Steel  (Problem) 117 

Toughness  Test  of  Broken  Stone  (Problem) 148 

Transverse  Test  of  Brick  (Problem) 135 

Cast  Iron  (Problem) 119 

Concrete 103 

Wood 131 

Trowels 14 

Turner  Impact  Machine 40 

U. 

Use  of  Concrete , 207 

V. 

Variations  in  Steel 240,  245,  25 1 

Vertical  Screw  Testing  Machines 33 

Vicat  Apparatus 19,  183 

Voids,   Percentage  in  Sand,   Gravel    and    Broken   Stone 

(Problem) 153 


270  INDEX 

W.  PAGE 

Waste  Materials 7 

Water,   Effect  of  Amount  on  Strength  of  Neat  Cement 

(Problem) 78 

Water,  for  Concrete 216 

Waterproofing  for  Concrete  (Report) 223 

Weight  of  Cement  (Problem) 57 

Wood,  Crushing  Test  (Problem) 129 

Flexural  Test  (Problem) 131 

Impact  Test  (Problem) 134 

Shearing  Test  (Problem) 126 

Tensile  Test  (Problem) 124 

Y. 
Yield  Point  of  Steel 237,  243,  248 


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*  Burr's  Ancient  and  Modern  Engineering  and  the  Isthmian  Canal 8vo,  3  50 

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Freitag's  Architectural  Engineering 8vo,  3  50 

French  and  Ives's  Stereotomy 8vo,  2  50 

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Sheep,  6  50 

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Warren's  Stereotomy — Problems  in  Stone-cutting 8vo,  2  50 

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Foster's  Treatise  on  Wooden  Trestle  Bridges. 4to,  5  00 

Fowler's  Ordinary  Foundations 8vo,  3  50 

Greene's  Arches  in  Wood,  Iron,  and  Stone 8vo,  2  50 

Bridge  Trusses 8vo,  2  50 

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Howe's  Design  of  Simple  Roof- trusses  in  Wood  and  Steel 8vo.  2  00 

Symmetrical  Masonry  Arches 8vo,  2  50 

Treatise  on  Arches 8vo,  4  00 

*  Hudson's  Deflections  and  Statically  Indeterminate  Stresses Small  4to,  3  50 

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Modern  Framed  Structures Small  4to,  10  00 

*  Johnson,  Bryan  and  Turneaure's  Theory  and  Practice  in  the.  Designing  of 

Modern  Framed  Structures.     New  Edition.     Part  1 8vo,  3  00 

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Merriman  and  Jacoby's  Text-book  on  Roofs  and  Bridges: 

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Part  II.    Graphic  Statics •. 8vo,  2  50 

Part  III.     Bridge  Design 8vo,  2  50 

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Sondericker's  Graphic  Statics,  with  Applications  to  Trusses,   Beams,  and 

Arches 8vo,  2  00 

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*  Specifications  for  Steel  Bridges 12mo,  50 

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HYDRAULICS. 

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Bazin's  Experiments  upon  the  Contraction  of  the  Liquid  Vein  Issuing  from 

an  Orifice.     (Trautwine.) 8vo,  2  00 

Bovey 's  Treatise  on  Hydraulics 8vo,  5  00 

7 


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Oblong  4to,  paper,  $1  50 

Hydraulic  Motors  .  - 8vo,  2  00 

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Flather's  Dynamometers,  and  the  Measurement  of  Power 12mo,  3  00 

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Hazen's  Clean  Water  and  How  to  Get  It Large  12mo,  1  50 

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Hubbard   and    Kiersted's   Water-works   Management   and   Maintenance. 

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Mason's  Water-supply.     (Considered    Principally   from   a   Sanitary   Stand- 
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Water-Supply  of  the  City  of  New  York  from  1658  to  1895 -4 to,  10  00 

Whipple's  Value  of  Pure  Water Large  12mo,  1  00 

Williams  and  Hazen's  Hydraulic  Tables.  > Svo,  1  50 

Wilson's  Irrigation  Engineering Svo,  4  00 

Wood's  Turbines Svo,  2  50 


MATERIALS    OF   ENGINEERING. 

Baker's  Roads  and  Pavements Svo,     5  00 

Treatise  on  Masonry  Construction Svo,     5  00 

Black's  United  States  Public  Works Oblong  4to,     5  00 

Blanchard  and  Drowne's  Highway  Engineering.     (In  Press.) 

Bleininger's  Manufacture  of  Hydraulic  Cement.     (In  Preparation.) 

Bottler's  Varnish  Making.      (Sabin.)      (In  Press.) 

Burr's  Elasticity  and  Resistance  of  the  Materials  of  Engineering Svo,     7  50 

Byrne's  Highway  Construction Svo,     5  00 

Inspection  of  the  Materials  and  Workmanship  Employed  in  Construction. 

16mo,     3  00 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering Svo,     6  00 

Mechanics  of  Solids  (Being  Parts  I,  II,  III  of  Mechanics  of  Engineer- 
ing  Svo,     4  50 

Du  Bois's  Mechanics  of  Engineering. 

Vol.    I.  Kinematics,  Statics,  Kinetics Small  4 to,     7  50 

Vol.  II.  The  Stresses  in  Framed  Structures,  Strength  of  Materials  and 

Theory  of  Flexures Small  4to,   10  00 

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*  Cements,  Limes,  and  Plasters Svo,     G  00 

Fowler's  Ordinary  Foundations Svo,     3  50 

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8 


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Johnson's  (J.  B.)  Materials  of  Construction Large  8vo,  6  00 

Keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo,  2  50 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics 8vo;  7  50 

Lowe's  Paints  for  Steel  Structures 12mo.  1  00 

Maire's  Modern  Pigments  and  their  Vehicles 12mo,  2  00 

Maurer's  Technical  Mechanics 8vo,  4  00 

Merrill's  Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration 8vo.  5  00 

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*  Strength  of  Materials 12mo,  1  00 

Metcalf's  Steel.     A  Manual  for  Steel-users 12mo,  2  00 

Morrison's  Highway  Engineering 8vo,  2  50 

*  Murdock's  Strength  of  Materials , 12mo,  2  00 

Patton's  Practical  Treatise  on  Foundations 8vo,  5  00 

Rice's  Concrete  Block  Manufacture 8vo,  2  00 

Richardson's  Modern  Asphalt  Pavement 8vo,  3  00 

Richey's  Building  Foreman's  Pocket  Book  and  Ready  Reference.  16mo,  mor.  5  00 

*  Cement  Workers'  and  Plasterers'  Edition  (Building  Mechanics'  Ready 

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Handbook  for  Superintendents  of  Construction 16mov  mor.  4  00 

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*  Ries's  Clays :   Their  Occurrence,  Properties,  and  Uses .  8vo,  5  00 

*  Ries  and  Leighton's  History  of  the  Clay-working  Industry  of  the  United 

States - 8vo.  2  50 

Sabin's  Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paint  and  Varnish 8vo,  3  00 

*  Smith's  Strength  of  Material 12mo,  1  25 

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Treatise  on  Concrete,  Plain  and  Reinforced 8vo,  5  00 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Engineering.      In  Three  Parts 8vo,  8  00 

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Constituents 8vo,  2  50 

Tillson's  Street  Pavements  and  Paving  Materials 8vo,  4  00 

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the  Preservation  of  Timber 8vo,  2  00 

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RAILWAY   ENGINEERING. 

Andrews's  Handbook  for  Street  Railway  Engineers 3X5  inches,  mor  1  25 

Berg's  Buildings  and  Structures  of  American  Railroads 4to,  5  00 

Brooks's  Handbook  of  Street  Railroad  Location 16mo,  mor.  1  50 

*  Burt's  Railway  Station  Service 12mo,  2  00 

Butts's  Civil  Engineer's  Field-book 16mo,  mor.  2  50 

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*  Crockett's  Methods  for  Earthwork  Computations 8vo,  1  50 

Dredge's  History  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad.   (1879) Paper,  5  00 

Fisher's  Table  of  Cubic  Yards, Cardboard,  25 

Godwin's  Railroad  Engineers'  Field-book  and  Explorers'  Guide. .  16mo,  mor.  2  50 
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Ifimo,  mor.  1  50 

Molitor  and  Beard's  Manual  for  Resident  Engineers 16mo,  1  00 

9 


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*  Orrock's  Railroad  Structures  and  Estimates k , 8vo,  3  00 

Philbrick's  Field  Manual  for  Engineers 16mo,  mor.  3  00 

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Elements  of  Railroad  Engineering 8vo,  3  5O 

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Roberts'  Track  Formulae  and  Tables 16mo,  mor.  3  00 

Searles's  Field  Engineering , IGmo,  mor.  3  00 

Railroad  Spiral 16mo,  mor.  1  50 

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Wellington's  Economic  Theory  of  the  Location  of  Railways Large  12mo,  5  00 

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DRAWING 

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Abridged  Ed 8vo,  1   5O 

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Elements  of  Drawing.     (In  Press.) 

Coolidge's  Manual  of  Drawing 8vo,  paper,  1  00' 

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Durley's  Kinematics  of  Machines 8vo,  4  00 

Emch's  Introduction  to  Projective  Geometry  and  its  Application 8vo,  2  5O 

Hill's  Text-book  on  Shades  and  Shadows,  and  Perspective 8vo,  2  00 

Jamison's  Advanced  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  2  OO1 

Elements  of  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  2  50 

Jones's  Machine  Design: 

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*  Kimball  and  Barr's  Machine  Design 8vo,  3  00 

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Mechanical  Drawing 4to,  4  OO 

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McLeod's  Descriptive  Geometry Large  12mo,  1  5O 

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Moyer's  Descriptive  Geometry 8vo,  2  00 

Reed's  Topographical  Drawing  and  Sketching 4to,  5  OO 

*  Reid's  Mechanical  Drawing.      (Elementary  and  Advanced.)..  .  , 8vo,  2  00 

Text-book  of  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Elementary  Machine  Design.. 8vo,  3  00 

Robinson's  Principles  of  Mechanism ,  .  .  ,    8vo,  3  00 

Schwamb  and  Merrill's  Elements  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  00 

Smith  (A.  W.)  and  Marx's  Machine  Design 8vo,  3  OO 

Smith's  (R.  S.)  Manual  of  Topographical  Drawing.      (McMillan.) 8vo,  2  50 

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Tracy  and  North's  Descriptive  Geometry.     (In  Press.) 

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Elements  of  Machine  Construction  and  Drawing 8vo,  7  5O 

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10 


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*  Chapin's  The  Sources  and  Modes  of  Infection Large  12mo,  3  00 

Davenport's  Statistical  Methods  with  Special  Reference  to  Biological  Varia- 
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*  Fischer's  Nephritis Large  12mo,  2  50 

*  Oedema 8vo,  2  00 

*  Physiology  of  Alimentation .  Large  12mo,  2  00 

*  de  Fursac's  Manual  of  Psychiatry.     (Rosanoff  and  Collins.) .  .  .  Large  12mo,  2  50 

*  Hammarsten's  Text-book  on  Physiological  Chemistry.      (Mandel.)..  .  .8vo,  4  00 
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Mandel's  Hand-book  for  the  Bio-Chemical  Laboratory 12mo.  1  50 

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*  Pozzi-Escot's  Toxins  and  Venoms  and  their  Antibodies.      (Cohn.).  .  12mo,  1  00 

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Smith's  Lecture  Notes  on  Chemistry  for  Dental  Students 8vo,  2  50 

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METALLURGY. 

Betts's  Lead  Refining  by  Electrolysis 8vo,  4  00 

Holland's  Encyclopedia  of  Founding  and  Dictionary  of  Foundry  Terms  used 

in  the  Practice  of  Moulding 12mo.  3  00 

16 


Iron  Founder 12mo,  $2  50 

Supplement 12mo,  2  50 

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Douglas's  Untechnical  Addresses  on  Technical  Subjects 12mo,  1  00 

Goesel's  Minerals  and  Metals:  A  Reference  Book 16mo,  mor.  3  00 

*  Iles's  Lead-smelting 12nio,  2  50 

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Keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo,  2  50 

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Minet's  Production  of  Aluminum  and  its  Industrial  Use.      (Waldo.).  .  12mo,  2  50 
Palmer's  Foundry  Practice.      (In  Press.) 

*  Price  and  Meade's  Technical  Analysis  of  Brass 12mo,  2  00 

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Constituents 8vo,  2  50 

Ulke's  Modern  Electrolytic  Copper  Refining 8vo,  3  00 

West's  American  Foundry  Practice 12mo,  2  50 

Moulders' Text  Book.  .                                                                            ..12mo.  250 


MINERALOGY. 

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Brush's  Manual  of  Determinative  Mineralogy.      (Penfield.)-. 8vo,  4  00 

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Cloth,  1  25 

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*  Groth's  The  Optical  Properties  of  Crystals.      (Jackson.) 8vo,  3   50 

Groth's  Introduction  to  Chemical  Crystallography  (Marshall) 12mo,  1   25 

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17 


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SANITARY    SCIENCE. 

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18 


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